UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


GIFT  OF 


DANIEL    C.     OILMAN. 


. 


INTRODUCTION 


TO 


THE   STUDY   OF   ART, 


BY 


M.    A.    DWIGHT, 

AUTHOR  OP  "GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY." 


NEW  YORK: 

D.    APPLETON    &     COMPANY, 

346  &  348  BROADWAY. 

1856. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress, 
In  the  year  One  Thousand  Eight  Hundred  and  Fifty-Six, 

BY     M.     A.    D  WIGHT, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the  Southern 
District  of  New  York. 


TO 

MISS    C.    M.    SEDGWICK, 

THE    PIONEER   OF  AMERICAN    FEMALE   WRITERS, 
THIS     WORK 

is 

RESPECTFULLY     DEDICATED, 
BY  THE  AUTHOR. 


CONTENTS, 


CHAPTER  I.  PAGE 

IMITATION      ....  9 

CHAPTER  II. 
TASTE  AND  STYLE 84 

CHAPTER  III. 
FORM  AND  PROPORTION .        »        .        03 

CHAPTER  IV. 
MUSCLES  AND  JOINTS          .        .        .  •        .        *        .        •        71 


CHAPTER  V. 
GRAVITY  OF  THE  FIGURE 86 

CHAPTER  VI. 
DRAWING  OF  THE  FIGURE 92 

CHAPTER  VII. 
PERSPECTIVE  AND  LINE 99 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
AND  SHADE 105 


VI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   IX.  PAGE 

COLOR  AND  ITS  LAWS •  112 

CHAPTER   X. 
EXPRESSION ,        .  123 

CHAPTER  XI. 
COMPOSITION 186 

CHAPTER   XII. 
CLASSIFICATION  OF  PICTURES 170 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
PORTRAIT  PAINTING 176 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
LANDSCAPE  PAINTING 177 

CHAPTER  XV. 
ANCIENT  PICTORIAL  ART 184 

CHAPTER   XVI. 
SYMBOLIC  COLORS 191 

CHAPTER   XVII. 
SYMBOLIC  EMBLEMS 218 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 
SCULPTURE 284 


PREFACE. 


MUCH  is  said  and  written  upon  the  importance  of  cultivating  the  art 
of  Design.  Our  people  spend  freely,  are  even  lavish  of  money  in  pro- 
curing works  of  art ;  and  statistics  show  its  importance  as  a  source  of 
revenue  when  applied  to  industrial  purposes.  Yet,  as  a  branch  of  edu- 
cation, drawing  is  almost  entirely  neglected.  This  is  partly  from  a  false 
idea  that  success  depends  upon  peculiar  abilities  with  which  few  are 
gifted ;  and  partly  from  ignorance  of  the  kind  of  cultivation  that  is 
necessary  to  insure  success.  It  is  understood  that  musical  skill  is 
acquired  only  by  laborious  application  and  practice,  under  the  best 
instruction,  during  several  successive  years ;  while  at  the  same  time,  it 
is  expected  that  artistic  skill  will  be  acquired  in  the  course  of  a  few 
weeks. 

The  imposition  to  which  the  ignorance  of  the  subject  exposes  a  com- 
munity in  the  way  of  poor  teaching,  and  "royal  roads,"  is  incalculable. 
There  is  no  study  in  which  scholars  are  so  wronged  as  in  this.  Young 
artists  suffer  for  the  want  of  good  teaching.  No  rules  are  given  them, 
and  they  have  no  training  which  will  enable  them  to  rely  upon  their 
own  abilities,  and  therefore  often  say,  they  "can  do  nothing  out  of 
Italy."  Many  of  the  most  gifted  have  been  entirely  blighted  by  being 
sent  there  to  "  copy  pictures." 

"  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  took  pupils,  and  Northcote  (who  was  one  of 
them,  and  a  favorite  one  too)  is  the  best  authority  on  this  point.  He 
informs  us,  that  after  the  drudgery  of  the  studio  was  over,  cleaning  pa- 
lettes, dead  coloring,  etc.,  he  was  allowed  to  copy  his  master's  pictures, 
but  received  no  instruction  as  to  the  colors  to  be  used,  or  the  mode  of 
mixing  or  applying  them ;  on  the  contrary,  Sir  Joshua  kept  his  colors 
locked  up,  and  never  allowed  K"orthcote,  or  any  of  his  scholars,  to  see 
him  at  work." 

"  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence  likewise  took  pupils  at  a  high  premium, 
whom  he  permitted  to  copy  his  portraits  from  nine  until  four,  under  the 
special  condition,  that  he  was  to  give  no  instruction  whatever,  and  th^t 


Vlll  PEEFACE. 

they  were  not  to  see  him  at  work :  Harlow  was  one  of  these  favored 
pupils,  who  paid  him  one  hundred  pounds  yearly  for  that  privilege."* 

Can  we  show  any  advance  upon  that  method  ?  At  the  opening  of  one 
of  our  schools  of  design,  the  first  teacher  established  at  the  head  of  it 
knew  nothing  beyond  a  limited  mechanical  system  of  drawing,  invented 
for  the  amusement  of  children.  And  in  another,  the  teacher  employed 
was  one  of  his  scholars,  who  had  advanced  so  much  beyond  him  as  to 
have  commenced  learning  the  first  rudiments  of  art  proper. 

One  great  difficulty  is,  that  the  subject  is  left  to  "  people  of  taste," 
instead  of  being  under  the  direction  of  educationists.  When  they  take 
it  in  charge,  and  require  that  drawing  shall  be  as  thoroughly  taught  as 
mathematics,  we  shall  see  in  the  productions  that  follow,  that  our  peo- 
ple are  not  deficient  in  natural  abilities ;  and  then  too,  we  shall  have  an 
appreciative  public,  an  essential  stimulus  to  true  cultivation.  Another 
difficulty  is,  that  art  is  considered  as  entirely  distinct  from  other  pur- 
suits. When  it  ranks  with  school  studies,  and  is  taught  with  the  same 
care,  parents  will  not  require  the  superficial  teaching  in  art  that  in  any 
other  study  they  would  justly  consider  an  imposition.  Their  impatience 
to  see  some  show  of  skill,  is  the  greatest  hindrance  to  the  improvement 
of  their  children — a  mistake  which  can  be  overcome  only  by  having  the 
art  of  drawing  thoroughly  and  universally  taught.  People  will  then 
have  learned  that  art,  like  all  other  acquisitions  of  skill,  requires  tune. 
And,  because  the  pencil  does  not  come  in  daily  use  during  life,  entirely 
overlooking  the  advantage  the  study  affords,  certainly  one  of  the  great- 
est in  the  influence  it  has  upon  the  general  cultivation  of  mind  and  taste, 
many  gravely  ask,  "  of  what  use  is  it  ?"  In  considering  these  points, 
can  we  wonder,  that  artists  of  the  present  day  have  not  the  skill  of  the 
old  masters  ? 

This  work  is  the  result  of  practical  teaching,  pursued  for  many  years. 
It  is  nothing  more  than  it  purports  to  be — an  introduction — intended  to 
give  some  idea  of  the  requirements  of  art,  and  direct  the  scholar  to  the 
study  of  nature.  By  studying  the  best  works  of  the  best  masters,  he 
will  find  that  the  rules  here  defined  governed  their  practice ;  and  by 
studying  nature,  he  will  learn  the  principles  on  which  they  are  founded. 
A  knowledge  of  both  is  essential  to  every  one  who  would  enjoy  and 
appreciate  works  of  art — more  especially  to  those  who  have  the  means 
as  well  as  the  disposition  to  encourage  the  efforts  of  young  artists.  By 
paying  high  prices  for  their  imperfect  works,  they  pet  their  faults,  and 
effectually  hinder  any  real  advance  towards  that  point  of  excellence 
which  they  professedly  encourage  them  to  attain.  M.  A.  D, 

*  Cleighorn's  History  of  Art. 


Library 

California 


INTRODUCTION 

TO 

THE    STUDY    OF    ART 


CHAPTER  I. 

IMITATION. 

1.  THE  same  Almighty  Wisdom  that  furnished  animals  with 
different  physical  tastes,  that  each  might  find  his  appropriate 
food,  formed  the  various  orders  of  mind  and  the  various  tastes 
by  which  each  is  characterized ;  and,  with  the  same  beautiful 
adaptation  of  laws,  furnished  gratification  for  each,  and  also  the 
ability  to  multiply  these  pleasures. 

2.  Some  minds  relish  external  beauty :  they  create  material 
representations;    hence   the   arts   of   painting,   sculpture,   and 
architecture.     Others,   again,   by  the   combination  of  sounds, 
attempt  to  express  those  finer  sentiments  of  the  heart,  that  lan- 
guage fails  to  define ;  hence  the  musical  art.     Still  another  class 
prefer  to  clothe  their  imaginations  in   rhythmical   language ; 
hence  the  art  of  poetry.     These  are  termed  Imitative  Arts  and 
Fine  Arts.     The  fine  arts  so  called,  are  all  imitative  arts,  but 
the   imitative  arts  are  not  all  fine  arts.      The  fine  arts  are 
Poetry,  Music,  Painting,  Sculpture,  Architecture,  and  Dancing. 
These  admit  the  expression  of  an  idea,  or  sentimentporThe 

1* 


10  STUDY  OF  ART. 

telling  of  a  story,  which  immediately  distinguishes  them  from 
the  merely  imitative  arts.  Without  expression,  the  works  of  the 
poet,  the  painter,  the  musician,  the  sculptor,  and  the  architect, 
in  point  of  merit,  fall  below  the  best  productions  of  the  mechanic 
arts,  because  these  are  perfect  of  their  kind,  while  those  of  the 
fine  arts,  with  this  deficiency,  are  wanting  in  their  most  essential 
element.  On  the  other  hand,  the  application  of  genius  and  skill 
to  the  practice  of  the  merely  imitative  arts,  artificial  flowers,  &c., 
or  even  the  mechanic,  still  farther  removed  from  the  ideal,  may 
elevate  their  productions  to  the  rank  of  the  fine  arts.  It  is  this 
distinction,  given  by  expression,  that  leads  us,  when  investigat- 
ing the  character  of  a  people,  to  look  at  their  fine  arts  rather 
than  their  imitative  or  mechanic,  (a) 

3.  QUATREMERE  DE  QuiNCY,  in  his  work  on  the  Fine  Arts, 
says :  "  It  is  generally  allowed  that  poetry  takes  precedence  of 
all  the  arts.  A  kind  of  universal  consent  assigns  to  it  the  first 
rank.  Every  one  comprehends  and  feels  that  this  mode  of 
imitation  is  the  least  material  of  all,  that  is,  the  farthest  removed 
from  sensible  objects  ;  and  also,  that  the  manner  of  enjoying  it 
as  well  as  its  images,  is  that  with  which  the  senses  have  least 
to  do.  There  is  nothing  less  material  than  the  imitative  instru- 
ments of  poetry  ;  namely,  speech  and  the  rhythmical  and 
metrical  arrangements  of  words.  In  regard  to  the  objects  of 
the  visible  world,  one  cannot  conceive  a  greater  distance  between 
what  it  depicts  and  its  manner  of  depicting.  This  distance  is 
the  same  as  that  which  exists  between  the  idea  and  the  sight 
of  a  thing.  Poetry  merely  produces  the  images  of  objects  by 
abstract  and  indirect  means,  which  are  only  rendered  visible  to 
us,  by  compelling  us  to  picture  them  to  ourselves.  It  can  only 
address  itself  to  the  internal  sense,  to  that  intellectual  organ,  on 
which  its  images  have  no  hold  but  by  reason  of  the  activity  they 
excite  in  it. 

4  "  There  is  certainly,  no  kind  of  imitation  so  far  removed  from 
actual  reality,  and  so  little  susceptible  of  being  confounded  with 
its  model,  as  that,  which  embracing  the  whole  of  Nature,  lays 
under  contribution  the  visible  and  the  invisible,  and  whose  com- 


IMITATION.  11 

binations  are  unlimited  both  in  space  and  duration  by  any  real 
state  of  comparison,  boundary  frame,  or  fixed  admeasurement. 

5.  "  Poetical  imitation,  then,  by  its  distance  from  reality,  and 
the  variety  of  relations  it  embraces  being  that  which  furnishes 
to  the  mind,  in  the  exercise  which  it  creates  for  it,  the  greatest 
amount  of  appositions  and  completions,  should  justly  occupy, 
and  as  confirmed  by  general  opinion,  does  occupy  the  first  rank 
in  the  imitative  scale  of  the  Fine  Arts. 

6.  "  If  it  is  true,  that  general  feeling  places  music  after  poetry 
in  this  scale,  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  such  order  is  conforma- 
ble to  the  rank  our  theory  assigns  to  the  different  arts,  according 
as  their  means  of  imitating,  and  their  images  are  more  or  less 
removed  from  reality,  and  the  pleasure  derived  from  them 
depends  more  or  less  on  the  sentiments  and  mental  activity. 
Music,  but  for  its  physical  impression  on  the  ear,  will  best  con- 
tend for  the  first  rank  with  poetry ;  for,  by  the  combination  of 
sound  alone,  it  has  the  power  of  creating  images  at  once  the 
most  varied  and  the  most  immaterial.     Like  poetry,  it  transports 
us  into  an  ideal  world,  where  the  imagination,  converting  mere 
concatenations  of  song,  concerts  of  instruments,  and  sonorous 
effects  into  forms,  bodies,  and  pictures,  gives  to  its  own  creations 
the  force  of  existence. 

7.  "  Undoubtedly,  no  art  more  imperatively  requires  that  the 
actions  and  emotions  of  the  mind  should  co-operate  with  the 
intrinsic  value  of  its  images,  and  compensate  for  whatever  is 
vague,  and  indifferent,  either  in  that  which  serves  for  its  model, 
or  becomes  the  imitation  of  it.     It  is,  moreover,  worthy  of  notice 
that  to  this  art,  people  devoid  of  imagination  or  sensibility  are 
the  most  indifferent. 

8.  "  Custom  is  found  to  be  in  accordance  with  this  theory,  by 
classing  next  in  succession  painting,  \vhich  imitates  bodies  by 
the  lineal  appearance  and  color  of  bodies.     Immediately  after 
painting,  ranks  sculpture,  or  the  plastic  art,  which  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  bodies,   employs   existent  matter.      It  cannot  be 
denied  that,  in  the  works  of  these  arts,  the  model,  and  what  ber 
comes  the  image  of  it,  are  in  actual  contact  to  a  certain  degree. 
It  is  this  property  that  draws  down  the  willing  admiration  of  low 


12  STUDY  OF  ART. 

and  vulgar  prejudice,  while,  on  the  contrary,  their  true  value 
and  merit  depend  far  less  on  corporeal  forms  by  matter,  than  on 
the  expression  of  the  most  immaterial  by  corporeal  forms. 
They  consist  in  representing  the  moral  by  the  physical ;  in  por- 
traying intellectual  ideas,  and  the  affections  of  the  mind  by 
palpable  forms ;  finally,  in  giving  not  a  body  to  thought,  but  a 
thought  to  bodies. 

9.  "  Architecture  comes  next  in  rank  in  this  imitative  scale ; 
and  the  arts  of  dancing  and  pantomime  are,  by  general  consent, 
ranked  with  those  of  design,  (b) 

10.  "  This  rank,  which  is  that  assigned  them  by  our  theory,  is 
wholly  consonant  to  their  nature,  since  they,  of  all  the  arts,  are 
the  most  exclusively  addressed  to  the  senses,  least  directly  to 
the  mind,  and  whose  imitation  is  most  strictly  confined  to  reality. 

11.  "In  fact,  there  is  no  kind  of  imitation  which  is  so  closely, 
I  will  not  say  in  contact  with,  but  almost  interwoven  with  reality, 
as  that  of  pantomimic  art,  in  which  the  model,  the  image,  and 
even  the  imitator  are  confounded  together.     In  the  pantomimic 
ballet,  for  instance,  the  separation  is  very  slight  between  the 
imitator  and  the  imitated.     The  art  is  so  little  distinguished 
from  the  artist,  that  he  himself  becomes  the  art.     Substance  is 
not  only  represented  by  substance,  but  living  beings  by  living 
beings.     Life  and  motion  are  represented  by  life  and  motion. 
Hence,  the  mental  pleasure  is  feeble  in  proportion  as  that  of 
the  senses  is  vivid.     The  action  of  comparison  is  less  frequently 
exercised,  and  appositions  become  no  longer  possible,  because 
of  the  very  slight  separations.     This  form  of  art  is  most  in  favor 
with  those  whose  greatest  pleasure  in  artistic  representations  is 
that  arising  from  the  illusion  of  the  senses."  * 

12.  In  pursuing  the  study  of  the  arts,  we  cannot  but  acknowledge 
the  accuracy  of  the  theory  that  assigns  to  poetry  the  first  rank,  for 
it  has  the  greatest  scope,  admitting  the  treatment  of  all  subjects, 
and  is  not  in  the  least  dependent  upon  the  other  arts.     By  the 
combination  of  words  alone,  used  as  language,  poetry  gives  full 

*  Quatremere  De  Quincy  on  the  Fine  Arts. 


IMITATION.  13 

expression  to  every  idea,  from  the  most  powerful  to  the  most 
delicate,  and  presents  scenes  so  vividly  as  well  as  so  variedly  to 
the  mind  of  the  reader,  that  the  impressions  are  both  pleasing 
and  permanent. 

13.  Music,  if  a  simple  melody,  depends  somewhat  upon  the 
language  of  the  poet  for  additional  interest,  and  for  expression 
by  sound  alone,  in  forming  a  whole  of  many  parts,  in  order  to 
obtain  a  full  effect. 

14.  Painting  ranks  next  to  music,  and  is  limited  in  subject. 
As,  for  instance,  allegory,  though  often  attempted,  does  not  pro- 
perly come  within  the  province  of  ideal  art,  because  a  pictorial 
representation  can  express  but  one  point  of  time.    In  poetry,  the 
continuation  of  a  metaphor,  or  figure  of  speech,  may  explain  all 
apparent  obscurity.     If,  in  a  picture,  we  substitute  one  thing 
for  another,  it  becomes  an  enigma.     Allegorical  pictures,  there- 
fore, properly  class  with  picture  writing,  or  hieroglyphics,  and, 
like  them,  need  a  key.     A  true  picture,  on  the  contrary,  tells 
its  own  story,  and  is  easily  read. 

15.  Sculpture,  or  the  plastic  art,  is  limited  in  subjects,  and, 
therefore,  cannot  rank  with  poetry. 

16.  Architecture  is  so  dependent  upon  the  plastic  art  for  or- 
namentation, that  it  can  hardly  be  considered  by  itself.     It  had 
its  origin,  and  was  perfected  as  an  art  under  the  influence  of 
Polytheism,  and,  in  considering  the  subject,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  architecture  of  the  present  day  is  not  that  of  the 
past. 

17.  Appropriated  to  temples  and  places  of  worship,  the  forms 
of  which  as  well  as  the  ornamental  parts  had  their  meaning,  ar- 
chitecture was  truly  a  fine  art,  and,  as  such,  was  governed  by 
certain  rules  of  practice.     The  various  orders  then  established 
have  since  been  imperfectly  and  inappropriately  imitated  in 
every  kind  of  edifice,  till  architecture  as  an  art  is  all  but  lost. 
Ancient  temples  and  churches  are  still  considered  standards  of 
beauty ;  not  that  the  spirit  of  their  architecture  is  understood, 
but  because  there  is  something  attractive  and  commanding  in 
the  truth  and  beauty,  the  character  and  expression  of  those 


14  STUDY  OF  ART. 

wonderful  structures  as  they  speak  to  us  through  the  medium 
of  sight.  Hence,  their  frequent  adoption  as  models;  but  in 
these,  as  in  all  imitations  of  original  works,  the  informing  spirit, 
which  constitutes  the  distinguishing  excellence  of  the  productions 
of  ancient  art,  and  has  insured  them  immortality,  is,  in  modern 
buildings,  entirely  wanting.  At  the  present  day,  we  have 
architectural  buildings,  but  not  architecture  as  a  fine  art. 

18.  Among  the  imitative  arts,  as  distinguished  from  the  fine 
arts,  engraving  ranks  the  highest.      Excellence  in  this  branch 
of  art,  depends  so  much  upon  the  artistic  knowledge  and  skill 
of  the  engraver,  that  his  productions  would  seem  entitled  to 
rank  with  the  fine  arts.     Yet,  engraving  is  strictly  an  imitative 
art,  the  subject  of  imitation  having  been  supplied  by  some  pro- 
ficient in  the  fine  arts.     In  addition  to  this,  the  artist  must  call 
in  the  aid  of  mechanical  skill  to  complete  the  labor  of  his  hand. 
Artificial  flowers  and  embroidery  rank  with  the  imitative  arts. 
These  admit  of  the  ideal,  both  in  form  and  color,  and  are  often 
made  exceedingly  pleasing  by  the  beauty  of  conception,  or  ar- 
tistic taste  displayed  in  the  skill  of  the  workman.     The  imita- 
tion of  pearls,  precious  stones,  &c.,  allows  of  no  such  latitude. 
In  the  manufacture  of  these,  the  artist  does  not  imitate  in  the 
artistic  sense  of  the  term,  that  is,  he  does  not  make  an  ideal 
imitation  :  he  simply  copies  his  object.     It  is  necessary  for  the 
student  of  art  to  have  this  distinction  between  imitation  and 
copy  clear  in  his  mind.     A  wax  figure,  for  instance,  is  a  copy 
from  life,  and  may  be  made  perfectly  deceptive,  not  illusive. 
An  artificial  flower  is  an  imitation  of  the  natural,  and,  as  such, 
admits  of  ideal  embellishment,  still  preserving  a  true  image  of 
the  object  represented,    a  marked  and  important  distinction. 
This  ideal  embellishment  is  beyond  the  province  of  copy.     The 
naturalist  does  not  need  the  ability  to  give  it ;  but  to  the  true 
artist,  the  power  of  ideal  imitation  is  an  indispensable  requisite. 

19.  Without  illusion,  which  distinguishes  the  imitative  arts 
from  the  mechanic,  there  is  no  ideal  imitation.     This  essential 
element  of  art  it  is  difficult  to  define.     It  is  not  deception  that 


IMITATION.  15 

implies  artifice.  Illusion  is  a  fallacious  show,  and  belongs  to 
imitation,  not  to  copy.  A  copy,  orfac  simile,  is  deceptive,  not 
illusive ;  as,  for  instance,  the  imitation  of  pearls,  marbles,  pre- 
cious stones  and  the  like.  The  daguerreotypist,  by  his  art, 
transfixes  the  illusive  reflection  of  the  mirror.  This  power 
constitutes  his  art.  Artistic  effect,  or  illusion,  so  essential  to 
the  character,  or  expression,  is  the  result  of  design. 

20.  And  here,  let  us  ask  what  gives  impulse  to  this  power 
of  imitation  that  is  common  to  all  humanity  ?  It  is  pleasure. 
And  what  is  the  definite  object  of  imitation  ?  The  same  thing  : 
pleasure.  Man  receives  pleasure  from  certain  objects  in  nature, 
either  in  their  form,  or  color,  or  in  the  ideas  they  suggest,  and 
he  desires  to  increase  his  gratification  by  multiplying  the  objects 
of  it  according  to  his  will,  or  by  his  own  creation.  Still,  with 
all  his  powers,  man  can  never  be  anything  but  an  imitator.  To 
create  something  out  of  nothing,  or  to  form  without  a  model,  is 
the  prerogative  of  the  Infinite.  To  the  mind  of  man,  a  new 
idea,  or  conception  is  suggested  by  something  previously  exist- 
ing ;  sometimes,  unconsciously,  perhaps,  to  its  author ;  yet,  the 
idea  may  always  be  traced  to  its  origin.  Some  minds  enjoy  the 
grand,  the  majestic,  the  powerful ;  others,  again,  relish  neither 
of  these :  their  coarser  natures  seek  gratification  in  the  indulgence 
of  physical  appetites,  and  each  one,  if  true  to  himself,  finds  and 
pursues  what  is  most  congenial  to  his  nature.  The  mind  con- 
stantly craves  new  impressions,  new  sensations,  and,  to  produce 
these,  art  is  called  in  requisition.  A  true  work  of  art  excites 
new  ideas,  new  emotions,  and,  in  contemplating  it,  our  minds 
are  enriched  with  new  conceptions  of  truth  and  of  beauty.  This 
is  the  greatest  benefit  conferred  by  art,  as  well  as  its  highest 
attainment.  To  reach  this  excellence,  the  study  of  nature  is 
indispensable.  Her  laws  must  govern  art.  The  beauties, 
varieties  and  intentions  of  nature  are  infinite ;  those  of  art  are 
limited.  Art  has  but  one  great  end  and  aim,  and  that  is  to 
produce  ideal  beauty.  This  ideal  beauty  must  have  principles 
for  its  foundation ;  and,  to  learn  the  true  principles  of  form, 
light  and  shade,  harmony  and  symmetry  that  are  essential  to 


16  STUDY  OF  ART. 

successful  imitation,  the  artist  must  go  to  the  immutable  laws 
of  nature,  the  only  guide  that  will  conduct  him  to  fame  and  im- 
mortality. He  will  find  that  truth  to  nature  is  the  fundamental 
principle  of  all  imitative  art.  For  such  is  the  beautiful  harmony 
of  creation,  that  the  violation  of  nature's  laws  is  repulsive  to 
the  mind,  unless  it  has  become  perverted;  then,  it  no  longer 
shrinks  from  deformity.  And  if  man  would  make  a  successful 
imitation  of  nature  in  any  form  of  art,  he  must  not  only  under- 
stand physical  laws,  but  the  laws  of  the  mind.  On  the  know- 
ledge of  the  first  depends  the  truth  of  imitation ;  and  on  the  se- 
cond, the  impression  produced  by  his  work.  If  he  is  ignorant 
of  either,  there  will  be  no  correspondence  between  cause  and 
effect ;  and  the  disappointment  occasioned  by  his  fruitless  attempt 
to  excite  admiration  or  give  pleasure  will  be  in  proportion  to 
the  labor  that  his  work  has  cost  him.  The  success  both  of  the 
poet  and  painter  depend  upon  their  taking  a  wider  range  than 
the  mere  imitator  or  copyist.  Their  province  is  to  embellish 
truth,  the  truth  of  nature,  which  each  must  make  the  foundation 
of  his  work,  whether  he  adopts  the  pen  or  the  pencil  as  a  medium 
of  expression.  In  the  merely  useful,  we  look  for  the  literal ; 
and  in  the  poetic,  for  the  ornamental  or  ideal.  When  the  ideal 
is  wanting  in  the  productions  of  the  poet,  we  have  rhyme,  but 
no  poetry ;  or,  in  the  works  of  the  artist,  we  have  paint,  but  no 
picture.  If  painting  has  been  correctly  defined  as  "silent 
poesy,"  how  few  can  claim  the  name  of  artist.  Servile  copying 
and  elaborate  detail  require  no  effort  of  skill  beyond  the 
attainment  of  the  most  limited  capacity.  The  mere  painter  has 
no  relish  for  anything  higher.  He  is  incapable  of  feeling  the 
beautiful  and  true,  has  no  appreciation  of  artistic  excellence, 
and  no  power  of  poetical  conception.  He  would  contemplate 
the  best  productions  of  art  without  the  slightest  emotion,  and 
drive  his  plough  over  the  "  wee,  modest,  crimson-tipped  flower," 
unmindful  of  its  perishing  beauty. 

21.  The  modern  German  pictures,  known  as  those  of  the 
Dusseldorf  School,  illustrate  the  impossibility  of  accomplishing 
the  highest  purposes  of  art,  by  attempting  an  exact  copy  of 


IMITATION.  17 

nature.  Certain  objects  may  be  closely  copied ;  when  others 
introduced  in  the  same  composition  do  not  admit  of  it.  Then 
the  reality  in  the  appearance  of  the  one  is  opposed  to  the  evi- 
dent falsity  of  the  other ;  consequently  there  is  a  want  of  unity 
or  harmony,  and  unity  in  the  whole  as  well  as  every  part,  is  an 
indispensable  requisite  of  a  good  composition.  The  authors  of 
these  works  attempt  to  copy  life  just  as  they  find  it,  hence  the 
sameness  of  character  that  stamps  their  productions.  The 
apparent  endeavor  of  each  one  is,  to  see  what  can  be  accom- 
plished without  the  aid  of  rules,  and  whenever  they  represent 
figures  the  size  of  life,  the  pictures  appear  more  like  tableaux 
vivants  than  like  works  of  art. 

22.  In  this  method  of  practice,  no  artist  can  excel  as  a  land- 
scape painter,  because  he  depends  for  his  effect  upon  a  close 
copy  of  nature,  which  it  is  impossible  to  extend  beyond  the 
foreground.     The  indistinctness  that  belongs  to  the  distance, 
and  that  must  be  represented  in  the  back-ground,  baffles  his 
limited  skill.     He  has  no  power  of  creating  space  on  his  own 
canvas,  and  in  the  distance,  so  essential  to  the  pleasing  effect 
of  a  landscape,  he  makes  a  total   failure.     Neither   does  he 
succeed  in  other  subjects,  for  his  erroneous  practice  will  not 
qualify  him  to  give  a  correct  representation  of  any  object  so 
placed  as  to  require  an  indistinct  outline  and  degradation  of 
color.     This  fact  proves  the  impossibility  of  success  to  an  artist 
who  paints  with  the  minute  detail  of  a  naturalist.     With  this 
detail  he  cannot  make  a  harmonious  picture.    To  be  in  keeping, 
every  part  must  be  idealized,  and  in  the  works  of  the  great  ideal 
artists  we  do  not  find  the  representation  of  any  particular  fabric. 
Every  thing  introduced  is  idealized,  hence  the  beautiful  har- 
mony of  the  whole,  a  point  worthy  of  great  attention.     As  all 
objects  introduced  serve  as  language  to  the  artist,  who  by  his 
selection,  arrangement,  and  representation,  expresses  the  idea 
he  intends  to  convey,  we  would  ask  what  occasion  has  the  ideal 
artist  for  mechanical  copying  ? 

23.  Matters  of  taste  in    the   fine  arts   may  be  questioned, 
but  the  laws  by  which  they  are  governed  are  arbitrary,  and 


18  STUDY  OF  ART. 

must  be  obeyed.  A  person  who  understands  the  science  of 
music  takes  no  pleasure  in  listening  to  the  performance  of  an 
opera  where  the  laws  of  time  and  harmony  are  not  strictly 
observed.  Yet  an  uncultivated  ear  will  listen  to  the  same  per- 
formance without  detecting  a  fault.  The  first  may  know  no- 
thing of  the  art  of  painting,  while  the  second,  when  looking  at 
a  collection  of  pictures,  will  be  annoyed  at  a  disregard  of  the 
rules  that  govern  the  pictorial  art,  and  each  will  wonder  at  the 
apparent  want  of  discrimination  in  the. other. 

24.  It  has  been  said  that  "  genius  plays  and  talent  labors." 
This   truly  defines  these   different   powers,  but   'tis   only   the 
genius  that  plays  by  rule,  as  the  most  spirited  dancer  observes 
the  true  measure  of  time,  that  is  eminently  successful.     Raf- 
faelle  in  his  short  life  accomplished  by  the  play  of  his  genius, 
what  the  labor  of  talent  alone  could  never  have  done  in  three 
score  years  and  ten.     Yet  no  artist  was  more  eminently  guided 
by  the  rules  of  art,  and  no  artist  is  so  often  referred  to  as  a 
standard  of  excellence  in  every  department  of  art  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest.     To  say  that  beauty  must  be  produced 
by  rule,  seems  a  contradiction  in  terms.     But  his  works  were 
eminently  beautiful.     They  were  also   pre-eminent   for   ideal 
beauty  of  imitation,  the  life  and  soul  of  art,  to  which  every 
other  element  constituting  the  excellence  of  the  whole  composi- 
tion may  be  considered  subordinate. 

25.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  a  standard  author  among  artists, 
remarks  in  one  of  his  lectures,  "  As  our  art  is  not  a  divine  gift, 
so  neither  is  it  a  mechanical  trade.     Its  foundations  are  laid  in 
solid  science ;  and  practice,  though  essential  to  perfection,  can 
never  attain  that  to  which  it  aims,  unless  it  works  under  the 
direction  of  principle."     And  if  the  question  is  asked,  whence 
these  rules  are  derived,  we  reply  in  the  words  of  Fuseli,  who 
says,  "  The  rules  of  art  are  either  supplied  by  Nature  herself, 
or  selected  from  the  compendiums  of  students  who  are  called 
masters  and  founders  of  schools.     The  imitation  of  Nature  her- 
self leads  to  style,  that  of  the  schools  to  manner."     Here  is  an 
important  distinction.     Too  many  artists   leave  the  study  of 


IMITATION.  19 

nature,  and  copy  works  of  art,  till  they  become  what  are  termed 
mannerists.  By  following  this  course  they  soon  lose  the 
strength  and  vigor  of  their  own  natural  abilities,  and  never 
produce  works  bearing  the  stamp  of  originality. 

26.  Goethe  remarks,  "  that  the  highest  demand  that  can  be 
made  of  an  artist  is  this :  that  he  shall  hold  to  nature — study  her 
— imitate  her ;  that  he  shall  produce  something  resembling  her 
manifestations. 

27.  "  How  great,  nay,  immense  this  requirement  is,  we  do 
not  often  consider ;  and  even  the  true  artist  succeeds  through 
instinct  and  taste,  through  practice  and  trial,  in  approaching  the 
outward  beautiful  side  of  objects,  in  choosing  the  best  out  of  the 
good  before  him,  and  at  last  learns  how  to  produce  an  agree- 
able appearance,  how  much  more  rarely  does  it  occur,  espe- 
cially in  these  later  times,  that  the  artist  is  able  to  penetrate 
into  the  depths  of  his  own  soul,  as  well  as  to  take  the  measure 
of  outward  objects,  and   thus,  instead  of  producing  works  of  a 
merely  superficial  effect,  emulate  Nature  herself,  and  create  a 
spiritually  organic  whole,  giving  to  his  work  an  import  and  a 
form  that  make  it  seem  at  once  natural  and  supernatural." 

28.  To  find  these  works  that  "seem  at  once  natural  and 
super-natural,"  and  that  so  charm  the  imagination  and  delight 
the  senses,  we  must  go  back  to  those  times  when  the  productions 
of  art  were  valued  in  proportion  to  the  mental  labor  and  ability 
required  for  their  accomplishment.     If  it  is  asked  why  we  have 
nothing  of  that  standard  at  the  present  day,  I  cannot  do  better 
than  to  quote  from  the  same  author,  who  says : 

29.  "  Everything  is  subject  to  eternal  change ;  and  when 
things   cannot  exist  together,  they  thrust  one  another  aside. 
The  same  is  true  of  knowledge,  of  the  training  of  certain  prac- 
tices, of  modes  of  representation,  and  of  maxims.     The  objects 
of  men  remain  daily  always  the  same.     The  man  still  desires  to 
be  a  good  artist,  a  good  poet,  just  as  he  did  in  past  ages ;  but 
the  means  by  which  the   same  objects  are  obtained  are  not 
apparent  to  all,  and  why  should  we  deny  that  nothing  would  be 
more  agreeable  than  to  bring  about  great  designs  in  sport  ? 


20  STUDY   OF  AKT. 

30.  "The  public  has  naturally  a  great  influence  upon  art; 
and,  in  return  for  its  applause  and  its  money,  it  expects  a  work 
that  shall  afford  it  unmixed  satisfaction  and  pleasure,  and  the 
artist,  for  the  most  part,  is  happy  to  accommodate  himself  to  this 
expectation ;  for  he,  too,  is  a  part  of  the  public.     He  received 
his  cultivation  in  the  same  days  and  years,  he  feels  the  same 
wants,  his  efforts  have  the  same  direction,  and  thus  he  consents  to 
accompany  the  multitude  that  carries  him  on,  and  that  he  animates. 

31.  "  Thus,  we  have  seen  whole  nations  and  epochs  enchanted 
with  their  artists,  and  artists,  in  their  turn,  mirrored  in  their 
nation  and  their  age*,  without  either  having  the  least  suspicion 
that  their  way  was  perhaps  not  the  true  way,  their  taste  at  least 
partial,  their  art  on  the  decline,  their  efforts  wrongly  directed."- 

32.  This  passage  naturally  suggests  several  questions ;  and 
we  ask  what  is  the  true  way,  and  the  true  taste,  and  the  true 
standard  of  excellence  in  art  ?    And  why  does  one  work  of  art 
out-live  another,  and  become  as  it  were  immortal  ?    And  what 
excellence  have  these  works  of  art  that  is  wanting  in  the  perish- 
able ?     I  answer :  the  true  way  is  to  work  by  rules  founded 
upon  the  laws  of  nature.     The  true  standard  of  excellence,  or 
merit,  has  these  same  rules  for  its  foundation.    The  imperishable 
works  of  art  are  the  ideal :  those  that  "  seem  at  once  natural  and 
super-natural."     The  perishable  are  the  attempt  at  the  real  by 
a  too  close  imitation  of  nature. 

33.  The  feeling  or  taste,  in  the  human  mind,  that  is  gratified 
by  ideal  representation,  may  be  better  analyzed  and  defined  by 
the  moral  philosopher  than  the  artist.     That  it  does  exist,  and 
demands  gratification,  is  proved  by  the  productions  of  all  na- 
tions, from  time  immemorial.     Some  little  investigation  on  this 
point  would  be  exceedingly  interesting,  showing  the  progress  of 
the  ideal  in  art,  the  foundation  of  the  different  tastes  evinced  by 
its  productions  in  the  different  stages  of  civilization,  and  among 
different  people.     One  thing  seems  true  in  regard  to  it,  and 
that  is,  that  the  ideal  representations  of  every  age  of  the  world 

*  Essays  on  Art,  by  Goethe,  translated  by  Sam.  Gray  Ward. 


IMITATION.  21 

are  more  or  less  pleasing  to  those  that  follow.  Take,  for 
instance,  the  ideal  representations  of  animals  as  they  are  adapted 
to  various  household  furniture,  and  the  like ;  or  the  Arabesque 
ornaments  formed  of  the  leaves  of  plants  idealized.  They 
afford  gratification  to  the  lover  of  the  beautiful  at  the  present 
day,  and  are  often  borrowed  by  various  artisans. 

34.  Every  one  is  familiar  with  the  story  giving  the  origin  of 
the  Corinthian  order  of  architecture.    The  artist  who  took  his  hint 
from  the  basket  overgrown  with  leaves  would  have  failed  en- 
tirely in  his  attempt  by  closely  imitating  the  thing  itself,  instead 
of  which  he  idealized  the  subject  presented  to  his  notice,  adapt- 
ing it  to  a  specific  object,  and  produced  a  work  of  artistic  beauty 
that  will  be  forever  preserved,  giving  pleasure  to  the  beholder, 
so  long  as  time  shall  last. 

35.  The  Eagle,  as  the  attribute  of  Jupiter,  is  an  ideal  con- 
ception of  great  beauty,  representing  that  bird  as  much  superior 
to   nature   as   the   god  was  to  common   mortals;   hence,   the 
universal  admiration  it  excites,  and  perhaps  its  frequent  adop- 
tion by  various  nations  as  an  emblem  of  power. 

36.  Look  at  those  great  master-pieces  from  the  hand  of  the 
sculptor ;  those  wonderful  productions  of  art  so  full  of  ideal 
beauty !     They  will  command  the  admiration  of  the  world  for 
ages  to  come,  as  they  have  done  for  centuries  past.     Color,  too, 
must  have  its  ideal  beauty.     In  discussing  pictures,  we  talk  of 
the  magic  of  color.     The  same  term  is  never  applied  to  the 
works  of  nature.    What  is  this  magic,  but  the  artist's  ideal  ?    At 
the  same  time,  the  lines  of  beauty  and  the  combination  of  tints 
must  be  true  to  nature,  or  they  will  fail  to  please.     But,  simple 
truth  of  imitation,  be  it  ever  so  pleasing,  will  not  insure  immor- 
tality.    Ideal  beauty,  and  that  alone,  lends  an  unfading  charm 
to  works  of  art. 

37.  It  is  true,  painting  is  strictly  an  imitative  art ;  but  mere 
imitation,  or,  more  properly,  copy,  can  never  touch  the  feelings. 
The  artist  must  give  to  his  work  the  impress  of  his  own  mind, 
his  own  conception  of  the  character,  or  subject,  that  he  handles. 
His  aim  should  be  to  make  the  resemblance  of  an  object,  and 


22  STUDY  OF  ART. 

invest  it  with  some  new  interest,  and  not  afac  simile;  for  the 
eye  wearies  of  repetition,  and  must  be  relieved  by  an  appeal  to 
the  imagination.  According  to  his  estimate  of  the  character  of 
art,  and  the  power  of  his  own  capacity,  the  artist  will  decide  on 
imitation  or  copy.  If,  by  the  medium  of  lines  and  colors,  light 
and  shade,  he  gives  expression  to  some  fine  sentiment,  some 
true  feeling  that  meets  a  response  in  the  hearts  of  others,  his 
picture  becomes  a  cherished  work  of  art.  On  the  contrary,  if  he 
is  incapable  of  anything  beyond  mechanical  copying,  let  his  skill 
in  that  department  be  consummate,  his  picture  is  mere  paint, 
can  gratify  none  but  those  familiar  with  the  object  represented, 
will  live  its  little  day,  and  be  forgotten  with  its  author. 

38.  The  servile  copyist,  whose  pride  seems  to  be  an  exhibi- 
tion of  purely  mechanical  skill,  instead  of  attempting  to  imitate 
Nature,  tries  to  make  a  duplicate  of  her  works.     This  being 
impossible,  his  effort  results  in  failure.     The  hand  of  man  may 
repeat  a  work  that  has  already  been  accomplished  by  human 
art,  but,  to  make  a  duplicate  of  Nature,  is  beyond  the  utmost 
effort  of  his  skill.    The  artificial  flower,  in  the  making  of  which, 
both  the  form  and  color  may  be  combined,  is  perhaps  the  near- 
est approach  to  it.     Still,  the  fibre  and  perfume  are  wanting — 
the  life  that  nature  alone  can  give.     To  make  a  resemblance  of 
the  same  thing  on  a  flat  surface,  different  rules  of  imitation 
must  be  observed. 

39.  Colored  statues  and  wax  figures,  belonging  to  the  same 
class,  are  so  like  life,  when  vitality  and  the  power  of  locomotion 
are  wanting,  that  the  sight  of  them  produces  the  most  disagreeable 
sensations.     It  is  impossible  to  invest  them  with  any  ideal  im- 
pression that  might  excite  a  pleasurable  feeling.     They  can  be 
nothing  but  stark,  staring  figures,  and  having  the  semblance  of 
humanity,  with  none  of  its  characteristics,  they  seem  but  a 
mockery  of  the  race,  and  we  turn  from  them  in  disgust. 

40.  "  Identical  repetition  is  not  the  end  and  aim  of  art.    The 
very  essence  of  imitation  is  to  represent  reality  by  its  appear- 
ance alone.     Reproducing  the  precise  resemblance  of  an  object 
destroys  the  effect  intended  by  imitation,  which  should  always 


IMITATION.  23 

furnish  occasion  for  comparison,  for  this  is  the  foundation  of  the 
pleasure  it  affords ;  and  no  artist  understands  the  nature  of 
imitation,  who  attempts  to  produce  an  exact  copy,  instead  of 
the  resemblance  of  an  object."  In  a  poetic  image  we  look  for 
the  resemblance  to  truth,  and  not  the  truth  itself,  and  this  truth 
of  resemblance  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  all  the  imitative 
arts.  In  the  art  of  painting,  harmony  and  effect  require  that 
the  lights,  shades,  and  colors  should  differ  from  those  in  nature. 
Nature  has  its  own  peculiar  charms  bestowed  by  the  Great 
Creator,  but  the  charm  of  every  work  of  art  must  be  the  gift 
of  the  artist.  Borrowing  nature's  choicest  beauties  will  not 
make  an  artistic  picture.  Each  has  its  own  province,  and  the 
foolish  fear  of  sacrificing  the  truth  of  nature  to  the  beauty  of 
art,  betrays  an  ignorance  of  the  laws  that  govern  both.  The 
pleasure  we  derive  from  nature  is  in  its  reality;  the  great 
charm  of  art  is  in  the  fictitious  imitation  of  nature,  by  which  a 
resemblance  is  produced  on  the  same  principles.  That  is,  in 
obedience  to  the  same  laws  of  beauty,  symmetry,  and  harmony 
that  govern  all  nature's  works.  A  copy  is  but  a  repetition, 
while  a  true  work  of  imitation  bears  some  impress  from  the 
mind  of  the  artist,  and  by  the  medium  he  has  chosen,  he  con- 
veys to  the  mind  of  another  his  conception  of  the  subject  repre- 
sented. In  other  words,  his  idea,  hence  the  term  ideal  in  art. 

41.  The  artist  who  sculptured  the  Apollo  embodied  his  own 
idea  of  physical  beauty  in  its  full  development,  and  also  his 
conception  of  the  attributes  of  the  god.     The  statue  of  Minerva 
embodies  the  artist's  idea  of  wisdom,  etc.,  and  in  all  statues  of 
their  deities,  the   Grecians    embodied  the   quiet  dignity  that 
should  characterize  the  consciousness  of  super-human  power. 
It  is  this  air  of  repose  that  so  decidedly  distinguishes  them 
from  all  other  productions  of  art,  all  other  imitations,  how- 
ever beautiful,  and  entitles  them  to  the  appellation  of  god-like. 

42.  The  laws  that  govern  the  practice  of  the  fine  arts  are 
universal.     Giotto,  Phidias,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Raffaelle,  the 
most  famous  artists  the  world  has  ever  produced,  excelled  in 
architectural   designs.     The  belfry  of  the  Cathedral  of  Flor- 


24  STUDY  OF  ART. 

ence,  so  much  admired,  was  the  work  of  Giotto.  Phidias  was 
the  architect  of  the  Parthenon  ;  Michael  Angelo  of  the  famous 
St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  Raffaelle  planned  all  the  ornamental 
designs  of  the  Vatican.  By  this  universality  of  law,  the  arts 
are  all  linked  together  in  intimate  and  inseparable  union  and 
harmony,  and  each  one  when  truly  understood,  reveals  beauties 
in  another  that  are  lost  to  those  whose  taste  and  knowledge  are 
limited  to  one  alone.  To  excel  in  the  practice  of  each,  requires 
the  same  abilities,  and  the  great  poet,  like  the  great  painter,  is 
distinguished,  not  so  much  by  uncommon  powers  of  mind,  as  by 
an  uncommon  combination  of  powers,  designated  by  the  name 
of  genius ;  free  imagination,  fine  sentiment,  both  moral  and 
intellectual,  clear  discrimination,  philosophical  reasoning,  sound 
judgment,  are  all  essential  to  the  best  productions  of  ideal  art. 
With  imagination,  perception,  and  judgment,  an  artist  may  pro- 
duce works  of  a  high  order,  but  if  his  mind  is  deficient  in 
philosophical  power,  he  can  be  neither  a  great  poet,  nor  a  great 
painter,  for  true  philosophy  is  the  foundation  of  all  true  art. 
"With  these  powers  of  mind,  the  author  expresses  his  concep- 
tions, either  in  rythmical  language,  sounds,  forms,  or  colors,  as 
may  be  most  agreeable  to  his  taste,  or  rather  the  feelings  that 
actuate  him.  With  the  same  impulse  he  chooses  the  subject 
of  his  work,  and  the  world  is  then  enriched  by  the  great  pro- 
duction of  a  great  mind,  that  bears  the  impress  of  original 
power  and  beauty. 

43.  It  has  often  been  remarked  how  much  assistance  the 
young  artist  may  derive  from  the  photographic  art.  Yes,  just 
the  same  that  a  student  of  language  derives  from  a  translation. 
Give  to  a  young  artist  thorough  instruction  in  the  principles 
as  well  as  the  practice  of  form,  and  light  and  shade,  and  he 
needs  no  aid  from  the  photographic  art,  or  any  other  forms  of 
mechanism.  In  resorting  to  the  use  of  them  he  acknowledges 
his  own  deficiencies  and  weakness,  and  so  long  as  he  depends 
upon  the  aid  they  give,  he  is  but  a  feeble  copyist,  entirely  des- 
titute of  artistic  knowledge  and  skill,  incapable  of  producing 
works  of  ordinary  merit,  much  less  those  bearing  the  stamp  of 


IMITATION.  25 

ideal  beauty  in  any  form  of  imitation.  In  this  point  of  view, 
photography,  instead  of  being  a  great  aid  to  artists,  or  in  any 
way  promoting  the  progress  of  art,  contributes  materially  to  its 
degeneracy.  It  is  one  thing  to  copy  nature,  and  quite  another 
to  compose  a  picture  according  to  the  rules  of  imitative  art 
founded  upon  the  laws  of  nature,  and  in  considering  the  ele- 
ments of  composition,  we  shall  find  that  the  imagination,  judg- 
ment, and  extensive  knowledge  essential,  to  the  poet,  are  no  less 
essential  to  the  painter.  It  is  true,  the  mediums  by  which 
they  produce  the  impressions  they  intend  to  convey  are  very 
different,  yet  the  same  powers  and  abilities  are  essential  to 
success,  for  the  works  of  both  are  equally  addressed  to  the 
heart  and  the  intellect. 

44.  Design  demands  all  the  ideal  of  art ;  for  the  expression  of 
a  fine  poetical  conception  cannot  be  truly  given  without  the  repre- 
sentation of  ideal  beauty  in  the  forms,  light  and  shade,  and  color, 
according  to  the  character  and  the  peculiar  tones  and  tints  required 
by  the  subject  chosen.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that,  to  give  his  own 
conception  of  the  scene  selected,  the  artist  must  imitate  objects 
that  will  serve  to  tell  the  story,  or  express  the  action  of  each 
party  introduced  in  the  picture.  A  mere  copy  will  not  answer 
his  purpose ;  for,  as  we  have  already  said,  "  the  mind  craves 
new  impressions,"  and,  to  meet  this  demand,  the  artist  must 
extend  his  skill,  and  impart  to  his  characters  some  idea  or  con- 
ception of  his  own.  The  elements  of  beauty,  essential  to  design, 
he  will  find  in  nature ;  but,  if  he  would  secure  the  approbation 
and  favor  that  he  covets,  he  must  repeat  them  in  a  pleasing 
form  of  imitation.  Lanzi  remarks  "that,  in  ornamental  arts, 
such  as  poetry  and  painting,  mankind  are  more  easily  satisfied 
with  mediocrity  in  knowledge  than  with  mediocrity  in  the  art 
of  pleasing."  This  art  of  pleasing  is  the  great  secret  of  suc- 
cess. "  When  Juno,  the  reigning  queen  of  Heaven,  the  large 
eyed,  the  white  armed,  wished  to  gain  complete  ascendancy 
over  Jupiter,  she  borrowed  Venus'  mysterious  girdle,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  graceful  art  of  pleasing."  Ideal  beauty  is  the 
mysterious  charm  with  which  the  artist  captivates  the  senses 

2 


26  STUDY    OF  ART. 

and  enchants  the  beholder,  and  he  will  find  that  the  most 
laborious  application  and  study,  and  the  exercise  of  his  best 
powers  in  giving  to  his  work  grace  of  form,  beauty  of  feature, 
and  truth  of  expression,  will  not  lead  to  a  world-wide  fame  if  he 
fails  in  this  essential  requisite  of  art. 

45.  This  consummation  of  excellence  is  not  attained,  until 
the  artist  has  so  mastered  the  rules  that  must  guide  his  practice 
that,  in  the  execution  of  his  work,  he  conceals  all  evidence  of 
labor.     The  perfection  of  Moore's  sweetest  melodies  is  said  to 
have  cost  him  hours  of  close  study.    Sheridan's  manuscripts  show 
the  same  careful  labor ;  and  Goethe,  the  power  of  whose  genius 
is  universally  acknowledged,  said :  "  Nothing  ever  came  to  me 
in  my  sleep."     The  labor  of  each  of  these  writers  is  so  entirely 
concealed,  that  we  are  ready  to  believe  that  their  works  cost 
them  no  effort  beyond  that  of  an  ordinary  penman ;  and  it  is 
this  rare  attainment,  the  art  of  concealing  art,  that  leads  to  the 
erroneous  belief  in  the  inspiration  of  genius,  that  not  only  fur- 
nishes ideas  to  the  gifted,  but  the  mechanism  essential  to  their 
right  expression.    Every  composer  who  obeys  his  native  instinct, 
labors  until  he  has  satisfied  his  own  sense  of  the  true,  and  the 
beautiful,  and  the  harmonious,  before  he  can  feel  that  his  work 
is  finished.    And  here  lies  the  great  difference  in  authors,  pain- 
ters, and  musical  composers.     Let  any  one  depend  upon  what 
he  considers  inspiration,  or  pander  to  a  taste  foreign  to  his  own, 
and,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  he  loses  the  true  and  unerring 
guide  of  nature,  becomes  weak  in  purpose,  when  he  should  have 
grown  strong,  and  feeble  in  execution,  when,  if  true  to  himself, 
he  might  have  become  powerful. 

46.  The  uneducated  savage,  from  the  necessity  of  self-re- 
liance, preserves   the   strong   instincts  given   him   by  nature. 
Remove  him  from  this  state  of  existence,  giving  him  the  benefit 
of  scientific  knowledge,  these  instincts  soon  desert  him,  and  he 
no  longer  relies  upon  their  dictates.     And  thus  it  is  with  the 
powers  of  the  mind :  their  growth  and  energy  depend  upon  the 
self-reliance  of  their  possessor ;  for  the  leading  direction  of  one's 
own  spirit  substitute  some  extraneous  guide,  the  mental  action 


IMITATION.  27 

inevitably  becomes  tame,  feeble,  and  spiritless ;  and  the  artist 
who  would  give  a  marked  character  to  his  work  must  not  de- 
pend on  imitating  other's  imitations,  or  on  forming  his  style  after 
other  minds.  The  native  powers  acknowledge  no  such  al- 
legiance, and,  by  their  inaction  in  such  service,  refuse  as  it  were 
to  sanction  the  suicidal  treachery  of  self-desertion. 

47.  The  Greeks  excelled  in  beauty  of  form,  so  peculiarly 
their  own  art,  that   their  works  are  recognized  at  a  glance. 
Michael  Angelo  excelled  in  the  grand  style,  but  where  shall  we 
look  for  the  works  of  art  from  which  he  modeled  ?     And  who 
but   the  Great   Creator  could   have  furnished  models  for  the 
seraphic  beauty  of  Raffaelle's  Madonnas  ?     These  artists  had 
their  followers  and  imitators  who  soon  degenerated  to  man- 
nerism.    In  the  works  of  nature,  life  and  vitality  are  extended 
from  the  root  to  the  branches.     Not  so  in  art :  she  sends  forth 
no  flourishing  and  fruit-bearing  branches ;  and  in  whatever  age  or 
country  art  has  sprung  up  and  taken  root,  in  any  form  of  devel- 
opment, then  and  there  alone  we  may  look  for  its  perfection. 
Art  is  universal,  but  strictly  indigenous  and  local  in  character, 
and  springing  as  it  does  from  nations  so  different  in  tastes  and 
habits,  and  particularly  in  religious  culture,  by  which  art  is 
ever  influenced,  it  cannot  be  reproduced  in  another  age,  or  on 
a  foreign  soil.     Its  growth  requires  the  same  influence  that 
gave  it  birth,  and  if  transplanted  under  another  atmosphere, 
assumes  a  modified  form,  entirely  wanting  in  that  originality 
which  is  its  life. 

48.  If  the  paintings  of  the  ancient  Greeks  had  been  pre- 
served as  well  as  their  statuary,  would  the  Italian  artists  of  the 
fifteenth  century  have  attained  the  same  excellence  as  painters  ? 
For  their  pictures  they  had  no  "  antique  models,"  and  like  the 
Greeks  must  find  in  nature  the  principles  that  are  necessary 
to  a  successful  practice  of  art ;  and  all  people,  of  every  nation 
and  of  every  age,  who  would  secure  a  lasting  fame  to  their 
works,  must  drink  deeply  at  the  same  fountain  of  knowledge. 
Ignorance  accomplishes  nothing;    earns  no  immortality;  but 
science,  profoundly  versed  in  the  immutable  laws  of  nature, 


28  STUDY  OF  ART. 

makes  truth  the  foundation  of  every  work  of  imitative  art,  and 
a  poetic  taste  adds  the  ideal  beauty  essential  to  its  completion. 

49.  The  genuine  productions  of  every  nation  exhibit  a  know- 
ledge of  the  most  essential  element  of  art,  that  is,  harmony. 
Harmony  of  effect  in  the  whole,  redeems  the  faults  of  parts  ;  and 
it  is  this,  and  this  alone,  that  makes  any  combination  pleasing  to 
the  eye.     The  works  of  the  Chinese,  for  instance,  have  a  certain 
harmony  of  parts  that  stamps  their  merit ;  and,  though  they  may 
not  afford  decided  gratification,  yet,  so  long  as  they  preserve 
their  characteristic  harmony,  will  never  offend  the  eye.  (c)  The 
same  remark  will  apply  to  the  Egyptian,  Phoenician,  etc.     At 
the  same  time,  the  artistic  works  of  each  nation  are  so  distinct 
in  character  as  to  be  recognized  at  a  glance,  even  when  modi- 
fied to  the  taste  that  was  formed  centuries  after  their  production. 
This  is  fully  illustrated  by  Layard,  who,  in  his  Assyrian  re- 
searches, has  brought  to  light  many  specimens  of  artistic  works, 
which  probably  furnished  models  to  the  artists  and  architects  of 
ancient  Greece. 

50.  Another  most  essential  element  of  imitation  is  freedom ; 
that  freedom  of  mind  and  hand  which  belongs  to  none  but  those 
who  have  mastered  the  principles  and  practice  of  art.     Then, 
the  mind  and  hand  work  in  unison,  and  the  mechanical  means 
used  are  like  pen  and  ink  in  the  hand  of  the  poet,  and  occupy 
no  more  attention ;  neither  do  they  give  character  to  the  work 
produced,  being  entirely  subordinate  to  the  spirit  that  gives 
them  direction.     Allston  says  :  "  The  materials  of  the  artist  are 
the  work  of  Him  who  created  the  artist  himself;  but  over  these, 
which  his  senses  and  mind  are  given  him  to  observe  and  collect, 
he  has  a  delegated  power,  for  the  purpose  of  combining  and 
modifying,  as  unlimited  as  it  is  mysterious.     It  is  by  the  agency 
of  this  imitative  and  assimilating  power  that  he  is  able  to 
separate  the  essential  from  the  accidental,  to  proceed  also  from 
a  part  to  the  whole,  thus  educing,  as  it  were  an  ideal  nature, 
from  the  germs  of  the  actual."     This  observation  applies  to 
ancient  artists,  who,  with  these  materials,  over  which  man  has, 


IMITATION.  29 

in  the  words  of  Allston,  "  a  delegated  power,"  imitated  nature, 
and  artists  of  the  present  day,  combining  and  modifying  by 
different  means,  imitate  their  works.  The  Parian  statuettes 
are  an  imitation  of  marble,  repeating  in  miniature  form  some  of 
the  antique  statues.  The  gelatine,  so  called,  is  an  imitation  of 
carved  ivory.  The  Gobelin  tapestry  is  an  imitation  of  pictures. 
The  materials  used  in  these  various  productions  differ  so  much 
from  that  employed  in  the  original  models,  that  they,  by  a  new 
form  of  imitation,  gratify  the  natural  craving  of  the  mind  for 
new  impressions,  and  thus  one  of  the  important  purposes  of  art 
is  accomplished.  Still,  the  imitation  of  an  imitation,  must  ever 
be  wanting  in  that  informing  spirit  that  stamps  the  value  of  an 
original  and  ideal  production,  and  which  alone  gives  immortality 
to  the  finite  works  of  man. 

51.  We  find  artists  classed  as  idealists,  naturalists  and  man- 
nerists, according  to  their  method  of  practice,  or  made  of  imi- 
tation. 

52.  The   number  of   ideal    artists   is    exceedingly  limited. 
Michael  Angelo,  Raffaelle,  Francia  and  Corregio  are  among  the 
most  eminent.     Taking  for  a  guide  the  rules  of  art,  founded  on 
the  laws  of  nature,  they  expressed  in  their  works  their  own 
conceptions  of  truth  and  of  beauty.     They  take  the  highest  rank 
among  painters,  for  the   same   reason  that  poetry  takes  the 
highest  rank  among  the  fine  arts  ;  that  is,  their  works  are  the 
farthest  removed  from  the  reality  of  nature. 

53.  Artists  designated  as  naturalists  suppose  that  the  nearer 
they  approach  to  the  appearance  of  nature,  the  better  their 
works ;  and,  by  thus  confounding  imitation  and  copy,  fail  in  their 
efforts  to  give  pleasure.     This  is  because  the  falsity  of  the  work 
of  art  is  made  too  palpable  by  the  reality  that  surrounds  it. 
"  The  artist,"  says  De  Quincy,  "  must  never  lose  sight  of  the 
fact  that  nature  is  real,  and  the  imitation  of  it,  fictious.     To 
counterfeit  nature  is  not  to  imitate  her.     The  fruitless  attempt 
at  identical  similarity  belies  and  foils  itself,  and  is  worthy  of 
no  other  name  than  that  of  counterfeit,  mimicry  or  parody. 


30  STUDY  OF  ART. 

Reality,  life,  motion,  are  the  prerogatives  of  nature.  It  is  by 
these  means  that  she  gives  pleasure.  Art  gives  pleasure  with- 
out life  and  reality.  Her  province  is,  to  supply  the  place  of 
reality  by  its  representation." 

54.  Many  excellent  artists  combine  idealism  with  naturalism, 
and,  selecting  their  models  from  people  by  whom  they  are  sur- 
rounded,  their   representations    of   character,   in   any   subject 
chosen,   are   more  or  less  individual.     This  shows  a  limited 
power ;  and,  however  meritorious  the  mechanical  skill  exhibited 
in  these  compositions,  they  can  never  rank  with  the  truly  ideal. 
To  this  class,  belong  Titian,  Carravagio,  Rembrandt,  the  Caracci, 
and  many  others. 

55.  Mannerists  depend  upon  copying  the  works,  or  imitating 
the  style  of  those  artists  whose  superior  skill  has  given  them  the 
greatest  fame.     "The  fluctuations  in  the  progress  of  art,  at 
different  periods,  and  its  final  decline,  may  be  principally  attri- 
buted to  mannerism  and  the  mannerists ;"  or,  in  other  words,  to 
the  imitators  of  imitators.     They  can  imitate  the  works  of  other 
artists  without  possessing  any  true  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and 
art  has  degenerated  in  proportion  to  the  ignorance  of  the  rules 
that  should  govern  its  practice.     A  thorough  knowledge  of  these 
is  essential  to  both  artists  and  people ;  for  the  character  and 
progress  of  art  depends  upon  an  appreciative  public.     If  na- 
tural taste  guides  the  artist  in  the  execution  of  his  work,  and 
there  is  no  appeal  to  any  other  criterion,  his  merits  must  ever 
remain  a  disputed  point ;  for  the  merits  of  a  work  cannot  be 
fairly  estimated  without  reference  to  some  standard  of  right, 
some  criterion  of  excellence. 

56.  An  author,  for  instance,  publishes  a  book  which  conies 
before  the  notice  of  the  people.     The  majority  of  readers  are 
sufficiently  familiar  with  the  rules  of  language  and  composition 
to  detect  any  egregious  errors  or  blunders  on  those  points ;  and, 
if  the  object  of  the  work  is  to  illustrate  either  mental  or  physi- 
cal laws,  its  truth  is  tried  by  reference  to  the  established  laws 
of  nature.     So,  in  a  building  erected  after  a  certain  order  of 
architecture,  if  any  question  arises  as  to  the  beauties  or  defects 


IMITATION.  31 

of  the  construction,  immediate  reference  is  made  to  the  rules  of 
the  order.  A  composition  of  music  is  written  under  the  juris- 
diction of  certain  laws  of  time  and  harmony,  the  violation  of 
which  destroys  all  effect  in  the  performance  of  the  piece.  But, 
in  judging  of  pictures,  or  statuary,  how  few  refer  to  any  standard 
of  rules !  We  hear  connoisseurs  refer  to  the  antique  and  the 
old  masters,  and,  so  far,  they  are  right.  But,  why  were  the 
ancient  masters  so  superior  to  the  modern  ?  And  how  is  it  that 
their  works  stand  the  test  of  ages,  and  have  served  as  models  to 
many  succeeding  generations  ?  It  is  because  they  worked  ac- 
cording to  rules  founded  upon  the  laws  of  nature. 

57.  The  history  of  art  shows  that  artists  were  a  long  time  in 
finding  out  these  rules  of  imitation.  Many  generations  of  men 
practiced  the  arts,  and  passed  away  before  anything  like  per- 
fection was  attained.  A  modern  writer  remarks  that  "  Italy 
had  artists  of  eminence  coeval  with  Dante  and  Boccacio ;  her 
national  style  of  painting  had  taken  firm  root  before  her  lan- 
guage was  formed,  or  generally  cultivated ;  her  advancement  in 
intellectual  refinement  may  be  traced  through  either  of  these 
mediums."  Progress  in  art  kept  pace  with  progress  in  civiliza- 
tion. Each  influenced  the  other,  and  artists  found  that  they 
must  perfect  their  skill  in  proportion  to  the  advancements  in 
science ;  and,  in  turn,  they,  by  their  works,  influenced  the  taste 
of  the  people,  till  finally,  the  productions  of  successive  artists 
excited  and  educated,  as  it  were,  a  public  taste  that  demanded 
gratification.  The  people  had  learned  to  love  that  ideal  beauty, 
which  is  found  only  in  the  highest  productions  of  art.  In 
following  its  history,  we  see  how  artists  gratified  the  people  by 
their  works,  and  the  people  the  artists  by  a  just  appreciation  of 
them.  This  influence  was  felt  by  the  best  men  of  the  time, 
which,  no  doubt,  gave  direction  to  minds  of  the  highest  order 
and  ability.  Then,  those  great  pictures  were  produced,  that  for 
centuries,  have  been  the  admiration  of  the  world,  and  the  mo- 
dels for  artists ;  and  such  was  the  effect  of  these  productions 
upon  the  people,  that  the  best  artists  of  the  time  were  chosen 
to  make  ornamental  designs  for  buildings  and  manufactures ;  for 


32  STUDY   OF  ART. 

a  taste  so  cultivated  demanded  artistic  excellence  in  every  work 
that  was  intended  to  gratify  the  eye. 

58.  Lanzi  says,  "  that  among  Raffaelle's   most   remarkable 
works,  may  be  mentioned  his  designs  for  tapestries  in  the  papal 
chapel,  the  subjects  of  which  are  from  the  lives  of  the  Evan- 
gelists, and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.     The  cartoons  for  them 
both  were  designed  and  colored  by  Raffaelle.     In  these  tapes- 
tries, the  art  attained  the  highest  point  of  excellence,  nor  has 
the  world  since   beheld   anything  to  equal   them   in   beauty. 
They  are  annually  exposed  in  the  great  portico  of  St.  Peters, 
in  the  procession  of  the  Corpus  Domini ;  and  it  is  wonderful  to 
behold  the  flocks  that  crowd  to  see  them,  and  who  ever  regard 
them  with  fresh  avidity  and  delight. 

59.  "  Raffaelle's  designs  were  not  limited  to  historical  subjects, 
for  his  taste  and  genius  directed  all  the  ornamental  parts  of  the 
Vatican.     He  selected  the  style  of  ornament  suited  to  every 
part  of  it,  and  thus  made  the  Pope's  residence  a  model  of  taste 
for  all  Europe.     He  made  designs  for  the  stuccoes  in  the  new 
galleries  of  the  palace,  and  the  various  subjects  there  painted. 
He  then  appointed  Giovanni  Udini  to  finish  the  stuccoes,  and 
Julio  Romano  the  figures,  and  no  part  of  the  Vatican  was  com- 
pleted without  his  superintendence.     He  directed  the  pavements 
and  doors,  and  all  the  interior  works  of  the  palace.     For  the 
entablatures  of  the  chambers,  and  for  several  of  the  windows 
and  doors,  he  employed  a  celebrated  Florentine  engraver  of 
gems.     This  work  was  executed  in  so  masterly  a  manner,  that 
Louis  XIII.,  wishing  to  ornament  the  palace  of  the  Louvre, 
had  all  these  intaglios  separately  copied.     The  drawings  were 
made  by  Poussin,  and  Mariette  boasted  of  having  them  in  his 
collection.     Nor  was  there  any  other  work,  either  of  stone  or 
marble,  for  which  a  design  was  required,  that  did  not  come 
under  the  inspection  of  Raffaelle,  and  on  which  he  did  not  im- 
press his  taste,  which  was  consummate  also  in  the  sister  art  of 
sculpture. 

60.  "  Feltrino,  a  Florentine  artist,  was  famous  for  his  deco- 
rative  inventions,   and  no   artist   of  his   time   was   so   much 


IMITATION.  33 

employed  in  designing  foliage  for  brocades,  or  in  ornamental 
painting.  Cosimo,  also,  drew  most  elegant  small  historical 
designs  for  tapestry  and  beds,  which  were  executed  by  his 
brother  Antonio,  and  also  by  Rossi  and  Fiaminghi,  who  in- 
troduced the  art  of  tapestry  weaving  into  Florence.  They 
wrought  from  the  designs  of  Pontormo  and  Bronzino.  They 
also  wrought  for  the  duke  of  Ferrara,  after  the  designs  of  Julio 
Romano,  Raffaelle's  best  pupil."  * 

*  Lanzi. 

2* 


CHAPTER  II. 

TASTE    AND    STYLE. 

61.  THOSE  mental  faculties  called  sentiments,  are  like  the 
reasoning  addressed  through  the  medium  of  the  senses.     Their 
gratification  constitutes  what  are  called  pleasures  of  taste. 

62.  Taste  is  the  palate  of  the  mind,  and,  like  the  physical 
palate,  accepts  and  relishes  whatever  is  adapted  to  its  peculiar 
organization.     It  also  decides  the  choice  of  pursuit,  as  the  phy- 
sical taste  decides  the  choice  of  food. 

63.  The  tastes,  or  sentiments,  are  developed  with  the  mental 
faculties,  and  their  formation  depends  upon  the  kind  and  degree 
of  cultivation  received  from  the  influence  of  other  minds,  and 
the   association   of  surrounding   objects.      The   determination 
given  to  taste  is  called  style. 

64.  The  pleasures  of  taste  are  more  or  less  varied,  more  or 
less  acute,  according  to  the  power  and  delicacy  of  the  percep- 
tive faculties.     If  sentiments  of  beauty,  of  grandeur,  and  of 
sublimity  exist  in  the  mind,  gratification  and  pleasure  arise 
from  the  contemplation  of  certain  objects  that  excite  emotions 
peculiar  to  these  sentiments.     Hence,  those  objects  are  termed 
beautiful,  or  grand,  or  sublime.     The  aim  of  the  poet,  the  mu- 
sician, or  painter  is,  by  the  power  of  his  art,  to  excite  senti- 
ments of  beauty  and  of  sublimity,  and  thus  contribute  still 
more  to  the  pleasures  of  taste. 

65.  With  reference  to  works  of  art,  three  kinds  of  taste  may 
be  defined  :  the  natural,  the  cultivated,  and  the  national. 


TASTE   AND   STYLE.  35 

66.  The  natural  taste,  however  modified,  always  manifests 
itself.     In  some  minds,  it  is  stronger  and  more  decided  than  in 
others.     Still,  the  best  natural  taste  requires  cultivation,  and  is 
matured  only  by  study  and  a  comparison  of  works  of  art. 

67.  Individual  tastes  are  indicated  at  an  early  period  of  life. 
We  observe  the  youngest  children  making  a  selection  in  their 
toys ;  some  taking  delight  in  color,  others  in  form ;  and,  as  their 
minds  become  more  developed,  these  tastes  are  more  strongly 
marked.     The  natural  tastes  may  be  improved  and  matured  by 
culture,  or  smothered  and  blighted  in  the  vain  attempt  to  culti- 
vate tastes  that  have  no  root.     This  effort  results  in  failure  and 
disappointment,  for  the  natural  and  artificial  cannct  exist  to- 
gether.   One  must  give  place  to  the  other.    The  productions  of 
an  artificial  taste  are  marked  by  an  affected  mannerism,  while 
those  of  the  natural  taste  exhibit  an  original  and  characteristic 
style.     Taste  is  more  or  less  subject  to  extraneous  influence. 
Style  is  formed  at  maturity. 

68.  Tastes  called  cultivated,  and  the  philosophy  of  their  gra- 
tification from  works  of  art  imitating  nature,  can  only  be  ex- 
plained by  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  that  govern  the  adap- 
tation of  nature's  works  to  the  wants  of  man.    That  is,  the  mind 
is  constituted  with  certain  appetites  to  which  the  productions  of 
nature  so  exactly  correspond  as  to  satisfy  their  craving  for 
beauty  in  variety,  and  variety  in  beauty.     Hence,  nature  never 
repeats  herself.     Grand  and  striking  scenes,  or  objects  that 
excite  the  strongest  emotions  are  the  most  rare.     Gorgeous  and 
brilliant  colors  that  weary  or  overpower  the  eye,  are  fleeting 
and  evanescent.     Hence,  nature  never  satiates. 

69.  We  have  previously  said  that  true  philosophy  is  the  foun- 
dation of  all  true  art,  and  the  artist,  be  he  poet,  musician,  or 
painter,  who  is  unable  to  distinguish  between  the  various  facul- 
ties or  powers  of  the  mind,  or  the  right  manner  of  addressing 
them,  may,  in  his  effort  to  excite  pleasure,  so  dazzle  the  senses, 
that  he  will  not  reach  the  sentiments  to  which  they  are  only  the 
medium.      The  success  of  his  labor  depends  so  much  upon 
native  ability,  that  no  rule  can  guide  him  beyond  that  of  being 


36  STUDY   OF   ART. 

governed  by  the  principles  found  in  nature.  He  will  soon  learn 
that  the  sentiments  cannot  be  touched  by  what  appears  on  the 
surface.  Mind  must  speak  to  mind,  and  heart  to  heart.  u  Deep 
must  call  unto  deep."  By  the  aid  of  the  reasoning  powers, 
discrimination  is  made  between  the  true  and  the  false  in  art,  as 
well  as  the  wholesome  and  the  deleterious,  (for  the  mental 
palate,  like  the  physical,  may  become  vitiated,)  and  the  final 
decision  is  given  by  the  judgment,  the  last  faculty  of  the  mind 
that  attains  maturity. 

70.  A  question  of  taste  sometimes  becomes  a  matter  of  dis- 
pute, in  which  case  it  can  only  be  decided  by  an  appeal  to  the 
laws  of  truth.     Then,  arises  the  question,  what  is  truth  ?     Ac- 
cording to  Hick  ok,  "  the  truth,  in  anything,  is  that  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  all  other  things,  and,  thus,  that  which  is  its 
truth,  cannot  be  truth  in  anything  beside.     Truth  particularizes 
its  object ;  therefore,  a  general  criterion  of  truth  is  an  absur- 
dity." * 

71.  With  regard  to  beauty,  or  the  beautiful,  in  art,  no  stan- 
dard will  serve  either  for  individual  or  national  taste.     Beauty 
is  an  intuitive  perception  or  sentiment.     If  it  is  not  implanted 
by  nature,  no  influence  or  instruction  can  impart  it,  for  no  laws 
can  define  beauty,  no  theory  can  establish  it.     Much  has  been 
said  and  written  upon  the  subject  of  beauty,  yet  no  standard  has 
been  established  to  which  the  world  agrees  to  refer.     Every 
one  points  to  his  own ;  and  to  all  who  do  not  acknowledge  it  to 
be  the  true  one,  we  are  apt  to  say :  "  You  are  not  a  person  of 
taste." 

72.  All  works  of  art  are  best  appreciated  and  enjoyed  by 
minds  kindred  to  those  that  produced  them.     To  a  person  of 
refinement,  coarseness  cannot  give  pleasure.     On  the  contrary, 
a  vulgar  mind  enjoys  nothing  delicate ;  to  such,  the  delicate  is 
not  the  beautiful.    The  mere  utilitarian  takes  no  pleasure  in  the 
decorative  and  the  ornamental :  he  is  gratified  with  nothing  but 

*  Hickok's  Rational  Psychology. 


TASTE   AND   STYLE.  37 

the  useful ;  and,  in  his  estimation,  no  work  of  art  can  equal  in 
beauty  a  labor-saving  machine.  We  must,  then,  come  to  the 
conclusion,  that  the  sentiment  of  beauty  in  the  mind  of  each 
individual,  regulates  the  standard  claimed  by  him  to  be  the  true 
one.  Hence,  the  impossibility  of  establishing  one  for  universal 
adoption.  It  must  be  individual,  and  regulated  by  the  natural 
cast  of  mind,  by  cultivation,  and  by  association. 

73.  The  sentiments  form  the  key  note  to  the  intellect  and  the 
affections.     In  their  different  tones,  we  find  as  great  a  variety 
as  in  the  different  orders  of  talent.     The  most  refined  and  de- 
licate belong  to  minds  of  the  higher  order,  and  are  the  most 
rare.     It  is  only  to  minds  of  this  cast  that  we  look  for  the  best 
productions  of  art ;  those  that  please  the  eye,  gratify  the  un- 
derstanding, touch  the  heart,  and  elevate  the  soul  with  a  feeling 
of  awe  at  the  Omniscient  Power  that  imparts  such  varied  and 
wonderful  gifts  to  the  mind  of  man.     There  is  a  fullness  of 
pleasure  in  this  excitement  of  many  sensations  or  perceptions ; 
wye  are  thrilled  with  delight,  and  expatiate  upon  the  beauty  of 
the  work  that  produced  them.     To  those  who  enjoy  it,  it  is 
beauty.    To  those  who  do  not — a  dead  letter,  an  unmeaning  blank. 

74.  The  works  of  the  Grecian  artists  show  how  assiduously 
they  cultivated  the  beautiful.     The  stimulus  to  this  pursuit  was 
making  statues  of  their  deities,  and  erecting  temples  to  their 
honor ;  or,  rather,  this  was  their  object,  and  the  stimulus,  the 
reward  of  immortality  inculcated  in  their  religious  belief,  and 
which,  at  that  time,  was  coveted  by  people  of  every  grade,  more 
than  any  other  gift  of  the  gods.     The  national  religion  was  a 
subject  that  would  enlist  the  feelings  of  the  whole  people.     In 
every  community,  religious  faith  is  a  common  bond  of  interest, 
and  artists  could  not  have  chosen  any  subject  for  the  display  of 
their  knowledge,  and  the  extent  of  their  skill,  that  would  have 
had  an  equal  influence  on  the  multitude.     No  other  would  have 
excited  that  universal  sympathy,  which  is  necessary  to  the  ac- 
complishment of  great  public  works. 

75.  The  opinion  is  often  advanced  that  we  are  indebted  to 
the  idolatry  of  the  Greeks  for  those  master  pieces  of  art  that 


38  STUDY    OF   ART. 

still  furnish  models  of  beauty  to  the  world.  It  is  also  said  that 
the  sacred  purpose  of  the  pictures  found  in  the  Roman  churches 
called  forth  the  best  powers  of  the  artists  of  that  time ;  and  thus 
it  is  supposed  that,  to  the  religious  influences  of  both  periods, 
we  are  indebted  for  those  works  of  art  that  charm  the  unbeliever 
no  less  than  the  devotee.  The  religion  of  ancient  Greece  has 
passed  away,  and,  with  it — the  glory  thereof.  The  religion  of 
Rome  is  the  same  now  that  it  was  in  the  days  of  Raffaelle  and 
Michael  Angelo,  and  probably  the  devotees  of  the  church  would 
be  unwilling  to  acknowledge  any  decrease  in  religious  zeal  or 
enthusiasm.  How,  then,  can  we  account  for  the  difference  in 
the  artistic  skill  of  the  past  and  the  present  ?  We  have  the 
same  materials  at  command,  and  the  same  incentives  to  use 
them.  But  have  we  the  same  age  of  learning  that  history 
reveals  among  both  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  at  those 
periods  when  their  arts  were  in  the  highest  state  of  cultivation? 
Do  not  the  works  of  all  nations  and  of  every  age  show  that  it  is 
the  taste  of  the  time,  and  not  the  religious  feeling  alone  that 
stamps  the  character  of  art  ?  And  does  not  the  history  of  the 
arts  prove  that  their  promotion,  everywhere,  depends  upon  the 
degree  of  cultivation  among  the  people  by  whom  they  are  pro- 
duced, more  than  upon  their  religious  worship  ? 

76.  It  is  true,  religion  and  art  have  gone  hand  in  hand;  but 
the  taste  of  the  Grecians  was  formed  while  they  were  studying 
the  sciences  as  well  as  painting,  sculpture,  and  music,  which 
were  considered  necessary  branches  of  education.  Each  one, 
no  doubt,  sheds  light  and  improvement  upon  the  rest;  and  the 
judgment,  formed  by  high  mental  culture,  modifies  and  improves 
the  taste,  till  it  finds  no  relish  for  inferior  works  of  art,  or  any 
form  of  meretricious  ornament.  If  proof  were  wanting  of  the 
influence  of  that  general  taste  called  public,  many  might  be 
produced,  and  also  of  the  influence  of  surrounding  objects  in 
forming  the  taste  of  the  uneducated  part  of  the  community. 
How  was  it  possible  for  the  ignorant  to  see  daily  such  works  as 
the  Parthenon  in  its  best  days,  and  such  a  multitude  of  statues, 
tripods,  and  all  the  most  finished  works  of  art,  without  acquiring 


TASTK    AM)    STYLE.  89 

a  love  for  the  beautiful?  And  feeling,  too,  that  they  also 
shared  in  the  national  glory,  they  could  not  be  indifferent  to 
the  beauty  of  the  works  that  so  distinguished  their  country. 

77.  The  style  which  characterizes  the  work  of  an  artist,  as 
well  as  the  style  of  an  author,  depends  upon  the  character  of 
his  own  mind.     The  rules  of  form,  light  and  shade,  and  color, 
bear  the  same  relation  to  art,  as  the  rules  of  spelling,  grammar, 
and  composition  to  authorship ;  and  the  writer  can  as  well  dispense 
with  the  rules  of  language  as  the  artist  with  the  rules  of  art.    At 
the  same  time,  in  the  productions  of  both,  there  may  be  a  strict 
observance  of  rules  and  yet  nothing  produced  that  will  make  an 
impression  either  upon  the  reader  of  the  one,  or  the  spectator  of 
the  other.     Again,  works  are  produced  by  both  that  suit  but  a 
limited  class  of  individuals.     Very  few  are  eminently  popular. 
In  an  extensive  community,  there  are  many  tastes  to  be  grati- 
fied.    But  few  enjoy  the  grand  style  of  Michael  Angelo,  or 
appreciate  the  power  of  Rubens.     Raffaelle  is  the  most  popu- 
lar of  all  great  painters,  as  Shakespeare  of  all  dramatic  writers, 
the  secret  of  which  is,  perhaps,  that  they  both  imitated  general, 
and  not  individual  nature  ;  and,  guided  by  those  principles  that 
are  the  foundation  of  artistic  excellence,  rather  than  the  prece- 
dents of  others,  each  imparted  to  his  works  the  impress  of  his 
own  immortal  spirit,  by  which  they  are  made  vivid  and  im- 
perishable. 

78.  At  the  present  day,  there  are  but  few  artists  whose  style 
was  not  formed  by  copying  the  works  of  others,  which  is  death 
to  all  originality.     Tis  true,  an  artist  derives  great  advantage 
from  the  study  of  those  works  that  furnish  a  standard  of  excel- 
lence in  art,  as  well  as  the  writer  in  studying  the  classics.     The 
error  is  in  copying  too  closely.     Does  not  history  prove  that 
great  artists  had  no  predecessors  in  their  own  sphere,  whose 
works  could  have  been  taken  by  them  as  models  ?     And  we 
shall  in  vain  look  for  anything  new  or  original,  so  long  as  artists 
are  confined  to  models.     Let  them  study  nature,  take  her  laws 
for  a  guide,  and  then  rely  on  the  strength  of  their  own  abili- 


40  STUDY   OF   ART. 

ties,  as  the  great  have  done  before  them,  and  works  as  great 
will  be  again  produced.  Not  precisely  the  same  in  character,  for 
no  two  periods  of  the  world  are  precisely  alike,  and  men  of  all 
ages  are  influenced,  not  only  by  the  circumstances  of  their  own 
time,  and  the  character  of  the  period  to  which  they  belong,  but 
they  also  feel  the  influences  of  the  past.  The  ideal  beauty  of 
those  masterpieces  of  art,  (to  which  they  owe  their  immortality,) 
has  tempted  artists  of  every  succeeding  generation  to  look  back, 
instead  of  forward,  and  in  that  way  they  have  lost  the  influence 
of  the  present  by  which  they  were  surrounded,  and  that  should 
have  given  a  style  and  character  to  their  works,  that  would 
mark  the  age  and  country  to  which  each  one  belonged. 

79.  NationaHaste  is  of  slow  growth,  and  is  characterized  by 
the  influences  of  climate  and  geographical  position,  as  well  as 
the  religious  observances  of  a  people,  (d)  In  the  maturity  of  a 
nation,  their  style  of  art  becomes  definitely  formed,  and  is  then 
characteristic  of  the  people.     With  regard  to  this,  one  thing 
may  be  observed,  and  that  is,  but  one  style  prevails  at  any  one 
period  of  time.     The  taste  for  art,  in  any  community,  is  gra- 
dually developed   and   cultivated,  passing  through   successive 
stages  to  a  complete  formation;  and,  after  flourishing  for  a 
period,  loses  its  vigor,  and  finally  decays ;  for,  when  both  artists 
and  people  feel  that  there  is  nothing  more  to  be  attained,  it  is 
impossible  that  the  spirit  of  art  should  be  preserved ;  but  the 
works  it  has  produced  still  live,  as  imperishable  records  of  past 
ages,  that  prove  the  power  of  the  Almighty  in  separating  nation 
from  nation,  or  in  blotting  them  out  from  the  face  of  the  earth, 
and  then,  by  bringing  their  works  of  art  to  light,  show  us  as  it 
were,  that  man,  with  all  his  powers,  is  perishable,  and  He  alone 
is  the  Infinite,  without  beginning  of  days  or  end  of  years. 

80.  Nothing  brings  people  of  other  nations  so  vividly  before 
us  as  their  works  of  art.     They  tell  us  of  their  religion,  of  their 
social  dwellings  and  customs,  of  their  advance  in  civilization 
and  religious  culture.     To  the  study  of  ancient  history,  a  know- 
ledge of  the  arts  as  practiced  by  different  nations  is  indispen- 


TASTE    AND    STYLE.  41 

sable.  Language  is  more  or  less  subject  to  change  and  decay, 
and  the  significance  of  many  expressions  is  lost  to  those  who 
do  not  use  it  as  a  vernacular  tongue.  Some  people  have  no 
written  language ;  but  all  have  works  of  art  from  which  something 
may  be  learned  of  their  rise,  progress,  and  character  as  a  nation. 

81.  The  remains  of  ancient  Egyptian  and  Syrian  art  prove 
that  their  taste  was  for  buildings  of  immense  size,  to  which 
their   statues   corresponded.      Restorations,   from    discoveries 
made  among  the  ruins  of  palaces  and  temples  by  late  explorers, 
show  that  the  productions  of  each  nation  were  distinct  in  cha- 
racter, and  marked  by  a  harmonious  beauty  peculiarly  its  own. 

82.  The  national  taste  of  the  Greeks  was  for  beauty  of  form. 
That  it  should  have  been  for  form,  and  statues  rather  than 
pictures,   may  be  traced  to  the  religious  influence  of  the  early 
ages.      Colors  then  had  a  symbolic  meaning,  and  were  used 
only  under  the  restriction  of  the  priesthood.     This  influence 
was  probably  modified  in  later  times.     Still,  the  names  of  the 
Greek  painters  are  few,  while  their  works  of  sculpture  are 
innumerable.     In  Rome,  this  restriction  in  regard  to  color  was 
not  extended  to  pictures,  and,  from  thence,  the  art  of  painting 
spread  to  different  states  and  countries.     Yet,  we  find  that  the 
works  of  every  people  bear  the  stamp  of  nationality. 

83.  The  Greeks  prayed  the  gods  that  their  memories  might 
never  die ;  and  this  universal  desire  for  immortality  perfected 
the  skill  even  of  the  most  humble  artisan.     The  whole  nation 
were  incited  by  the  same  powerful  and  elevating  motive,  and, 
in  the  superior  beauty  of  their  works,  we  see  the  result  of  its 
influence.     With  this  feeling,  the  whole  nation  sympathized; 
and  the  names  of  those  who  had  distinguished  themselves  by 
superior  skill  or  excellence  in  any  department  of  art,  or  in  any 
sphere  of  life,  were  handed  down  century  after  century,  and 
have  reached  our  own  time,  even  from  remote  periods. 

84.  Winckleman   says :  "  We  know,  even  at  this  day,  the 
name  of  the  architect  of  an  aqueduct  on  the  isle  of  Samos,  and 


42  STUDY   OF   ART. 

of  him  who  constructed  the  largest  vessel  there  ;  also  the  name 
of  Architeles,  a  famous  stone  cutter,  who  excelled  in  working 
columns.  The  names  of  two  weavers,  or  embroiderers,  who 
wrought  a  mantle  for  the  Pallas  Polias,  at  Athens,  are  known ; 
the  name  is  also  preserved  of  the  saddler,  as  we  should  call 
him,  who  made  the  leathern  shield  of  Ajax;  even  a  certain 
Peron,  who  prepared  a  fragrant  ointment,  was  noticed  in  the 
works  of  different  distinguished  men.  Plato  himself  has  im- 
mortalized in  his  works  Thearion,  a  baker,  on  account  of  his 
skill  in  his  handicraft,  as  well  as  Sarambus,  a  clever  inn- 
keeper. With  this  view,  the  Greeks  appear  to  have  named 
many  excellent  articles  after  the  persons  by  whom  they  were 
made,  and  the  articles  were  always  known  by  those  names. 
Thus,  the  vessels  that  were  fashioned  similar  to  those  made 
by  Thericles,  of  burnt  clay,  in  the  time  of  Pericles,  received 
their  name  from  that  artist." 

85.  At  the  present  day,  neither  artist  nor  artisan  asks  : 
"  Will  this  work,  upon  which  I  have  bestowed  so  much  care 
and  labor,  secure  to  me  immortal  fame  ?"  The  question  is : 
"  Will  it  sell  ?"  And,  from  the  planning  of  the  work  to  its 
completion,  he  consults  the  public  taste  with  reference  to  this 
one  object.  A  moment's  reflection  will  show  that  works  of  art, 
bearing  the  same  elevated  stamp  as  the  statues  and  pictures  of 
the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  will  not  be  produced  in  the 
present  century.  The  spirit  of  the  age  is  eminently  utilitarian. 
The  sciences  are  studied,  not  so  much  for  honor  and  renown, 
or  the  love  of  learning,  as  that  the  knowledge  gained  may  be 
applied  to  practical  purposes.  The  stimulus  to  this  application 
is  the  hope  of  an  immediate  increase  of  pecuniary  profit.  The 
arts,  too,  are  cultivated,  but  the  painter  is  encouraged  and  sup- 
ported only  by  the  munificence  of  the  wealthy,  or  associations 
for  that  express  object.  The  daguerreotypist  has  nearly  su- 
perseded the  portrait  painter,  for  the  dispatch  with  which  he 
accomplishes  his  work  suits  the  character  of  the  age ;  this  cha- 
racter influences  the  taste  of  the  people,  and  again  the  public 
taste  gives  direction  to  the  skill  of  the  artist,  (e) 


TASTE   AND   STYLE.  43 

86.  It  is  frequently  said  that  patronage  is  all  that  is  needed 
to  secure  progress  in  the  arts ;  but,  in  working  under  the  direc- 
tion of  patronage,  whether  public  or  private,  no  man  can  pre- 
serve a  perfectly  independent  mind.     The  two  things  are  incom- 
patible.    Instead  of  expressing  his  true  thoughts  and  feelings, 
the  promptings  of  his  own  mind  and  heart,  he  must  be  more  or 
less  influenced  and  guided,  or  probably  misguided,  by  the  taste 
and  judgment  of  others.     By  patronage,  art  is  reduced  to  the 
level  of  a  trade,  and  all  works  produced  under  its  direction, 
bear  the  stamp,  not  of  genius,  but  of  value  received.     And,  in 
this  prostitution  of  those  powers,  which  are  Heaven's  best  gift, 
the  finer  sensibilities  of  our  nature,  the  sentiments,  that  give 
tone  to  the  mind  and  character,  are  irrecoverably  lost.    A  moral 
death  then  seems  to  blight  every  faculty ;  the  native  powers 
lose  their  energy,  and  we  look  in  vain  for  any  indications  of 
genius,  or  the  maturity  of  early  promise. 

87.  The  tribunal  by  which  the  works  of  the  Grecian  artists 
were  approved  or  condemned  had  no  such  influence.     They  felt 
the  justice  of  the  decision  given,  for  it  was  founded  upon  know- 
ledge ;  and,  on  the  same  ground,  considered  the  renown  gained 
by  approbation,  an  honorable  distinction,  and  a  sufficient  reward. 
It  was  for  this  that  they  labored,  and  not  a  pecuniary  remune- 
ration.    To  the  high-minded,  honorable  distinction  is  the  best 
and  purest  impulse.     "  Honor,"  says  Cicero,  "  rightly  bestowed, 
nourishes  the  virtues  and  all  the  arts."     One  thing  more  must 
be  considered  with  regard  to  the  artists  of  that  day,  and  that  is, 
that  they  worked  upon  principle.     They  were  not  copyists* 
They  had  no  "  antique  models,"  and,  therefore,  studied  nature, 
learned  her  laws,  and  then  embodied  their  own  ideas  in  their 
own  manner,  independent  of  foreign  guide  or  precedent.     With- 
out these  universal  and  eternal  principles,  which  form  the  basis 
of  all  that  is  beautiful  and  true,  art  is  wanting  in  that  dignity 
which  should  ever  characterize  her  works. 

88.  The  Etruscans  were  in  advance  of  Italy  in  cultivating 
the  arts,  which  they  practiced  even  before  the  time  of  Cadmus. 


44  STUDY   OF   ART. 

Their  style  of  art  should  be  considered  as  a  school  and  a  system 
rather  than  as  the  works  of  native  Etruscan  artists.  They  were 
a  powerful  people  at  least  nine  hundred  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era,  and,  at  the  foundation  of  Rome,  were  far  advanced  in 
the  arts. 

89.  The  taste  for  art  was  introduced  into  Rome  by  their 
warriors,  who  carried  home  pictures,  statues  and  vases  from 
the   various    Grecian    cities,   as    trophies   of  their   victories. 
Hence,  their  plastic  works  partook  more  or  less  of  the  Grecian 
character.     Their  early  paintings  bear  evident  marks   of  the 
influence  of  Mosaic  pictures  upon  the  style  of  painting  first 
adopted,  particularly  in  the  gilded  grounds. 

90.  Among  the  Italians  of  the  fifteenth  century,  art  attained 
perfection.     The  taste  of  the  time  was  for  true  learning ;  and 
the  study  of  the  sciences,  so  generally  cultivated,  became  im- 
portant to  artists.     Thus,  the  character  of  the  age  influenced 
their  minds,  and  the  scientific  knowledge  then  acquired,  enabled 
them  to  establish  the  true  principles  of  art,  illustrated  in  their 
works,  and  to  this  they  owe  their  great  excellence.      Their 
followers,  content  with  imitating  this  excellence,   instead   of 
learning  the  principles  on  which  it  is  founded,  have  never 
equalled  them  in  truth  to  nature,  or  ideal  imitation. 

91.  The  Dutch  and  Flemish  artists  were  of  a  later  date. 
They  did  not  substitute  the  excellence  of  others  for  their  own 
characteristic  style,  but,  following  nature,  produced  works  of 
intrinsic  excellence  and  beauty. 

92.  Among  the  French,  the  national  taste  for  pageantry  and 
show  seems  to  have  given  direction  to  art.     The  never-ceasing 
demand  for  something  new,  forbids  all  attempt  at  repetition, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  calls  in  exercise  the  abilities  of  the  best 
designers. 

93.  The  infinite  variety  of  articles  produced  by  their  various 
artisans,  exhibit  great  inventive  powers,  and  true  artistic  skill, 


TASTE   AND  STYLE.  45 

founded  on  scientific  knowledge.  This  universal  cultivation 
gives  a  refinement  of  taste  in  whatever  pleases  the  eye ;  and  the 
French  people  look  for  gratification,  not  so  much  in  great  pro- 
ductions of  art,  as  in  manufactures,  decorations,  and  all  articles 
that  come  in  daily  use,  and  by  which  they  are  perpetually  sur- 
rounded. No  people  are  so  scientifically  correct,  and  yet  so 
tasteful  as  the  French;  and  the  universal  demand  for  their 
works,  among  people  of  every  nation,  is  not  mere  fashion  ;  for, 
by  their  combination  of  truth  and  of  beauty,  the  taste  is  grati- 
fied that  was  formed  to  relish  the  truth  and  beauty  of  nature. 
There  is  only  this  difference  in  the  pleasure  produced  by  the 
two :  artificial  beauty  but  touches  the  surface,  gratifies  for  the 
moment,  till  succeeded  by  some  new  variety ;  the  beauties  of 
nature,  ever  fresh  from  the  hand  of  the  Great  Creator,  touch 
the  heart,  and  lead  it  to  the  source  from  whence  they  came. 

94.  The  English  have  no  national  style.     They  follow  all 
schools,  and  copy  the  works  of  all  masters,  and  their  most  origi- 
nal artists  are  those  who  never  left  their  native  country  to  study 
abroad.     Such   as    Hogarth,   Morland   and   others.      Hogarth 
imitated  life  among  the  vicious,  both  high  and  low.     Morland 
was  both  ignorant  and  vulgar,  but  painted  all  kinds  of  rural 
scenes  with  great  truth  and  beauty.     He  was  taught  the  rules 
of  art  by  his  father,  and  formed  his  style  from  the  study  of 
nature,  his  only  model.     His  taste,  which  was  that  of  an  igno- 
rant mind,  whose  whole  youth  was  spent  with  low  associates, 
dictated  the  choice  of  objects.     Pigs,  domestic  animals,  and 
fishermen  on  the  sea  shore,  variously  occupied  in  the  different, 
departments  of  their  calling,  he  delineated  with  truth  and  spirit, 
at  the  same  time  giving  to  his  work  the  impress  of  his  own 
genius. 

95.  With  ourselves,  the  national  taste  remains  yet  to  be 
formed,  and  the  direction  given.     If  we  depend  upon  imitating 
the  works  of  our  predecessors,  we  shall  have  no  characteristic 
style. 


4:6  STUDY    OP  ART. 

96.  The  rules  of  art,  founded  on  the  laws  of  nature,  form  the 
only  true  basis  for  original  designs.    Let  the  artist  master  these, 
and  he  may  then  find  his  own  sphere  of  labor,  and  produce 
new  and  artistic  works,  characterized  by  individual  taste  and 
ability.     Success  depends  upon  self-reliance.     The  guiding  im- 
pulses of  our  nature  are  not  sufficiently  regarded  by  ourselves, 
or  respected  by  others..      Each  one  has  abilities  given  him 
appropriate  to  a  certain  sphere.     These,  he  is  bound  to  cultivate 
and  improve,  and  not  depend  upon  the  strength  of  others  to  ac- 
complish what  it  belongs  to  him  to  do.      This   self-reliance 
makes  the  great  difference  in  men.     It  is  not  conceit,  and  should 
not  be  confounded  with  it.     The  conceited  are  ever  degenerat- 
ing.    The  self-relying  are  always  improving,  growing  stronger 
and  stronger  in  their  own  might,  till  they  tower  above  their 
compeers,   and  what  they  accomplish   marks   an   era  in  the 
world's  progress.     But  to  men  of  the  strongest  capacity,  as  well 
as  the  weakest,  whatever  art  their  taste  leads  them  to  pursue, 
a  knowledge  of  rules  is  indispensable  to  success.    Without  their 
guidance,  no  artist  can  attain  excellence. 

97.  Under  a  republic,  art  has  many  advantages.     The  whole 
people  then  become  judges,  and  it  is  because  the  works  of  art 
produced  are  to  be  judged  by  the  whole  people  that  the  emula- 
tion of  artists  is  stimulated  to  the  highest  degree  of  improve- 
ment.    Grecian  art  attained  its  glory  under  a  republic ;  and,  in 
Greece,  the  works  of  their  sculptors  were  exhibited  openly,  and 
the   constant   contemplation   of  works   of  the   highest    order 
educated  the  taste  of  the  people,  and  qualified  them  to  judge  of 
their  merits. 

98.  In  Italy,  where  the  best  specimens  of  pictorial  art  were 
produced  that  are  known  to  us,  some  of  the  finest  pictures  were 
painted  for  the  churches,  which  were  open  to  the  whole  people, 
and  so  intimately  associated  with  their  religion  as  to  be  a  com- 
mon subject  of  interest.     The  contemplation  of  these  pictures 
formed  the  taste  of  the  people,  and  artists  felt  that  the  tribunal 
before  which  their  works  appeared,  and  by  whom  they  were 


TASTE   AND   STYLE.  47 

judged,  was  not  a  limited  number  of  their  own  profession,  but 
every  member  of  the  republic  to  which  he  belonged. 

99.  No  art  can  advance  where  it  is  not  understood  and  ap- 
preciated.    And,  until  a  better  knowledge  of  the  subject  is 
diffused  among  our  people,  we  shall  see  little  or  no  improve- 
ment.    In  Greece,  the  arts  attained  the  greatest  perfection,  and 
the  Grecians  were  a  nation  of  judges.     On  this  point,  Winkle- 
man  observes  :  "  The  judges,  however,  were  not  unacquainted 
with  the  arts ;  for  there  was  a  time,  in  Greece,  when  its  youth 
were  taught  in  the  schools  of  art  as  well  as  philosophy  :  Plato 
learned  drawing  at  the  same  time  with  the  higher  sciences. 
The  design  was,  as  Aristotle  says,  that  they  might  acquire  a 
correct  knowledge  and  judgment  of  beauty." 

100.  The  festival  of  the  Olympic  games,  which  was  the  oc- 
casion for  a  general  gathering  from  all  the   Grecian  states, 
afforded  the  artist  an  opportunity  to  present  his  work  before  the 
most  competent  judges,  and  this  he  did,  confident  that  its  faults 
would  be  freely  condemned,  and  its  merits  justly  appreciated. 
It  was  to  the  whole  assembly  of  people  that  the  artist  then 
looked  for  a  decision.     And  what  stronger  stimulus  could  he 
have  had  for  the  full  exertion  of  his  best  powers  ?     At  the  pre- 
sent day,  the  artist  looks  to  his  brother  artists,  who  compare 
themselves  among  themselves,  till  they  are  incapable  of  distin- 
guishing the  true  from  the  false  in  art.     The  highest  standard 
of  each  one  is  the  merit  of  his  neighbor.     Nothing  could  be 
more  detrimental.     It  is  an  essential  hindrance  to  all  improve- 
ment, even  in  those  who  possess  the  best  genius. 

101.  Ancient  art,  as  it  was  practiced  at  different  periods  of 
time,  will  not  be  again  revived,  for  the  character  of _art  ever 
depends  upon  the  wants  and  cultivation  of  the  age  in  which  it 
is  produced.     Practical  utility  is  now  the  great  spur  of  action, 
and,  under  its  influence,  art  cannot  have  the  same  character 
as  when  it  was  sacred  to  the  gods.     In  the  progress  of  cultiva- 
tion, art  gradually  lost  in  significance  and  power  what  it  has 
gained  in  grace  of  form  and  beauty  of  finish.     When  art  was 


4:8  STUDY  OF  ART. 

employed  as  a  language,  and  its  productions  were  emblematical, 
or  symbolical  of  certain  attributes  or  ideas,  beauty  was  made 
subordinate  to  meaning.  But,  as  general  knowledge  was  more 
diffused,  significance  became  subordinate,  and  the  gratification 
of  the  eye  a  more  prominent  object  of  art. 

102.  The  influence  of  religious  observance,  and  the  power  of 
the  priesthood  limited  the  progress  of  art  during  many  cen- 
turies.    Sculpture  did  not  attain  perfection  till  the  time  of 
Pericles ;  and  painting,  among  the  Europeans,  in  the  fifteenth 
century.     Ever  since  those  periods,  art  has  been  enriched  by 
new  inventions  and  new  discoveries  that  have  had  an  important 
bearing  and  influence  upon  national  taste  and  national  produc- 
tions     This  progress  is  intimately  associated  with  mechanic 
inventions,  and,  indeed,  may  be  considered  as  resulting  from 
their  ]  erfection.     Dependent  upon  the  application  of  mechanical 
power  rather  than  mental,  art  is  no  longer  individual  and  ideal. 
It  is  more  or  less  mechanical  and  material,  and  artists  lose 
their  labor  in  attempting  to  reproduce  works  of  an  ideal  cha- 
racter.    The  age  that  gave  that  stamp  is  long  past,  and  will  not 
be  again  revived.      During  its  existence,   the  principles   of 
science  in  their  application  to  art  were  subordinate.     Now,  they 
are  applied  to  mechanism,  and  this  mechanism  becomes  the  pro- 
minent instrument  of  art,  and  it  is  only  in  this  direction  that 
anything  new  will  be  accomplished ;  for  all  genuine  productions 
are  impressed  with  the  spirit  of  their  own  time,  the  only  genius 
that   truly  responds  io  the  invocations  of  the  most   devoted 
artist. 

103.  The  study  of  ancient  art  should  be  duly  cultivated,  for  a 
knowledge  of  it  improves  the  taste  and  opens  an  infinite  source 
of  pleasure,  giving  an  appreciation  of  intrinsic  beauties  peculiar 
to  the  works  of  antiquity,  and,  through  them,  an  understanding 
of  the  people  by  whom  they  were  produced.     And  this  is  not 
all :  a  knowledge  of  it  also  explains  to  us  the  poetic  imagery 
and  figurative  language,  as  well  as  the  symbolic  forms  and 
ceremonies  recorded  in  the  sacred  scriptures ;  but,  to  revive  an 
ancient  style  of  art,  is  like  reviving  a  dead  language,  the  sounds 


TASTE  AND  STYLE.  49 

of  which  may  be  uttered,  yet  the  life  and  spirit  that  give  power 
to  utterance  will  ever  be  wanting. 

104.  So  long  as  art  was  employed  as  a  symbolic  language,  and 
every  line  and  every  color  expressed  a  sentiment,  or  conveyed 
an  idea,  it  was  emphatically  artistic.     Now,  the  character  of  art 
is  changed,  and  has  become  essentially  scientific.     This  charac- 
ter gives  pleasure,  and  excites  interest  from  the  novelty  of  its 
discoveries,  and  the  importance  attached  to  them,  but  is  not 
likely  to  become  a  permanent  form  of  art,  because  as  such,  it 
does  not  meet  the  wants  of  man.     His  nature  craves  the  ideal ; 
and  the  universal  cultivation  of  the  fine  arts,  strictly  as  arts,  in 
all  their  purity,  power  and  beauty,  seems  the  only  thing  that 
can  satisfy  this  appetite  without  engendering  morbid  influences. 

105.  People  of  every  age  appreciate  and  enjoy  what  they 
best  understand.     The  ancient  knights  appreciated  the  skill  and 
prowess  of  arms.     Hence,  their  pleasure  in  tilts  and  tourna- 
ments.    The  ancient  artists  appreciated  the  power  and  beauty 
of  art  according  to  their  mode  of  practice.     Hence,  their  interest 
in  its  promotion  and  cultivation.      But  we,  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  can  hardly  understand  how  men  of  former  times  could 
perform  long  marches  encased  in  a  full  suit  of  armor ;  or  even 
cleave  their  fellows  from  head  to  foot  through  the  same  coat  of 
steel.     Neither  can  we  understand  the  spirit  of  ancient  art,  that 
seems  a  super-human  power.  "  To  appreciate  either,  we  must 
make  it  our  own.     We  admire  the  one,  but  attempt  no  imita- 
tion of  it ;  and  to  the  other  we  render  homage  by  endeavoring 
to  give  to  the  productions  of  our  own  time  the  same  stamp  of 
imperishable  beauty  that  has  immortalized  theirs. 

106.  This  subject  is  worthy  of  investigation  in  all  its  bearings. 
In  the  time  of  tilts  and  tournaments,  the  nobles  and  gentry  had 
no  learning.     They  could  not  even  write  their  own  names. 
They  turned  their  skill  in  arms  to  martial  entertainments,  and, 
by  including  ladies,  added  to  these  diversions  the  ideal  of  ro- 
mance, and  to  this  they  owed  their  life  and  zest.     Still,  the 
poetry  of  the  thing  was  too  intimately  blended  with  social  and 
individual  life.     But  these  tournaments  served  to  cultivate  their 

3 


50  STUDY  OF  AKT. 

taste  for  skill  of  arms,  and  at  the  same  time,  gratified  their  love 
of  excitement,  one  of  the  prominent  traits  of  man's  nature,  and 
when  the  call  was  given  for  a  holy  crusade,  the  knights  and  their 
retinues  greedily  responded,  for  no  employment  could  have 
been  more  genial  to  their  tastes  and  habits. 

107.  We  sometimes  see  this  love  of  excitement  taking  one 
form  of  gratification  and  sometimes  another.     It  leads  the  world- 
ly to  an  excess  of  fashionable  amusement.     The  business  man, 
to  speculation.     The  devotee,  to  religious  excess.     The  vicious, 
to  wickedness.     The  multitude,  to  a  belief  in  Millerism,  spi- 
ritual rappings,  and  the  like.      Might  not  this  trait,  so  va- 
riously developed,  be  directed  and  saved  from  an  unhealthy 
influence  by  cultivating  a  love  for  the  fine  arts  ? 

108.  Allston,  in  one  of  his  lectures,  says  :  "  Art  may,  in  truth, 
be  called  the  human  world ;  for  it  is  so  far  the  work  of  man, 
that  his  beneficent  Creator  has  especially  endowed  him  with 
the  powers  to  construct  it ;  and,  if  so,  surely  not  for  his  own 
amusement,  but  as  a  part,  small  though  it  be  of  that  mighty 
plan,  which  Infinite  wisdom  has  ordained  for  the  evolution  of 
the  human  spirit,  whereby  is  intended,  not  only  the  enlargement 
of  this  sphere  of  pleasure,  but  of  his  higher  capacities  of  adora- 
tion, as  if,  in  the  gift,  He  had  said  unto  man  :  f Thou  shalt  know 
me  by  the  powers  I  have  given  thee.'     The  calling  of  an  artist, 
then,  is  one  of  no  common  responsibility,  and  it  well  becomes 
him  to  consider  at  the  threshold,  whether  he  shall  assume  it  for 
high  and  noble  purposes,  or  for  the  low  and  licentious." 

109.  Nothing  can  give  us  a  more  forcible  impression  of  the 
powers  with  which  God  has  gifted  man,  than  tracing  the  pro- 
gress of  art  from  its  earliest  commencement ;  or,  in  other  words, 
this  world  of  man's  construction.     We  find,  in  so  doing,  that  the 
elements  of  the  human  mind  are  the  same  everywhere,  and  ever 
have  been,  and  that  the  seeming  difference  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  people  of  every  nation  adopt  their  own  modes  of  expressing 
their  own  sentiments,  and  recording  their  own  deeds.     And  we 
find,  too,  that  the  earliest  forms  used  are  the  most  simple  and 
the  most  original,  as  well  as  the  most  significant.     Every  sue- 


TASTE  AND   STYLE.  51 

ceeding  age  shows  the  influence  of  the  preceding,  for  not  one 
fails  to  give  more  or  less  of  its  own  impress  to  all  that  follow. 

110.  The  massive  temples,  and  colossal  figures  constructed 
by  the  people  of  remote  antiquity,  (of  the  harmonious  beauty 
of  which,  in  their  full  significance,  we  have  little  conception,) 
exhibit  the  cultivation  of  mental  powers  as  well  as  physical. 
By  the  Grecians,  both  were  cultivated,  and,  in  the  works  that 
they  produced,  we  see  the  perfection  that  results  from  this  com- 
plete development.     From  Greece,  the  arts  were  transplanted 
to  Italy,  where  they  were  assiduously  cultivated,  till  we  find,  in 
following  their  progress,  that  the  effeminate  luxury  of  the  people 
to  which  they  administered,  contributed  to  their  decline  and  final 
decay ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  Italians,  in  their  luxurious  habits 
of  indulgence,  lost  the  vigorous  energy  essential  to  the  construc- 
tive powers  of  man. 

111.  Differing  essentially  in  character,   and  still  more  in 
religious  belief,  which  so  materially  influences  art,  we  vainly 
attempt  to  revive  the  past.     The  statues  of  the  ancient  deities 
and  heroes,  and  the  pictures  illustrating  sacred  history,  embodied 
some  poetical  conception.     They  were  eminently  ideal.     But 
we  want  no  objects  of  worship,  and  no  pictures  of  saints,  there- 
fore, our  artists  are  furnished  subjects  from  real  life.     They  at- 
tempt to  make  ideal  pictures,  and  representations  of  those  who 
were  men  like  themselves,  and  this,  too,  under  the  restriction 
of  conventional  forms,  and  the  influence  of  familiar  associations. 
Without  a  perfect  portrait  or  copy  of  the  individual  represented, 
the  work  is  condemned  as  wanting  in  the  likeness ;  without  the 
ideal,  it  is  equally  condemned  as  wanting  in  artistic  excellence ; 
and  in  thus  attempting  to  combine  both  the  real  and  the  ideal, 
keeping  in  mind,  as  they  must,  the  mundane  tastes  that  they 
labor  to  gratify,  is  it  strange  that  artists  so  often  make  a  com- 
plete failure  ? 

112.  The  question  naturally  arises :  Then,  what  can  we  do, 
in  our  great  republic,  and  under  the  light  of  Christianity,  for 
the  promotion  and  cultivation  of  the  fine  arts  ?     And,  what  is 
the  best  manner  of  pursuing  the  subject  ?    The  divine  religion 


52  STUDY  OF  ART. 

in  which  we  believe,  was  established  to  overthrow  idolatrous 
worship  and  the  work  of  men's  hands,  and  shall  we  do  aught  to 
restore  it  ?  Or,  by  self-glorification,  make  our  works  offensive 
in  the  sight  of  God  ?  Or,  in  fear  of  this,  shall  we  abandon  all 
attempts  at  ideal  art  ? 

113.  Intellectual  education  is  more  universal  with  us  than  it 
ever  has  been  among  any  other  people,  and  if  with  that  we  dif- 
fuse the  refining  influence  afforded  by  the  cultivation  of  the  fine 
arts,  shall  we  not  help  to  elevate  our  people  above  the  enjoy- 
ment of  mere  worldly  gain,  and  the  vain  pomp  that  too  surely 
accompanies  great  prosperity  ?     We  are  gifted  by  our  Maker, 
who  doeth  all  things  well,  with  both  reasoning  and  perceptive 
faculties,  and  without  the  aid  of  both,  how  should  we  compre- 
hend the  Omnipotent  and  Omnipresent  ?    Cultivating  the  reason- 
ing faculties  to  the  neglect  of  the  perceptive,  produces  a  one- 
sided development,  and  we  need  not  fear  to  cultivate  both,  if 
both  are  made  to  grow  in  the  fear  of  God.     The  religious  ele- 
ment of  our  nature  is  its  life,  and  the  spring  of  man's  best 
efforts.     Self-aggrandisement  was  not  the  first  impulse  of  the 
ancient  artists ;  neither  was  this  their  end  and  aim.     It  was  to 
do  honor  to  their  gods,  and  transmit  their  worship  to  their  pos- 
terity.    Fame  followed  from  the  eminent  skill  attained  under 
the  influence  of  this  stimulus. 

114.  In  praying  to  their  gods  to  give  them  fame  and  immor- 
tality, they  acknowledged  the  existence  of  a  higher  power,  as 
well  as  their  reliance  upon  its  influence ;  and  the  beauty  of  their 
works  attest  the  purity  of  their  motives,  both  in  the  projection 
and  in  the  execution.     For  how  much  that  belongs  to  the 
highest  cultivation  have  they  furnished  models !     Poetry,  the 
drama,  sculpture,  architecture,  classic  literature,  in  short,  all 
attainments  that  require  the  exercise  of  the  highest  faculties ; 
and,  if  we  doubt  the  utility  of  cultivating  the  fine  arts,  or  the 
influence  of  this  cultivation  in  refining  and  elevating  the  cha- 
racter, let  us  contrast  the  ancient  Greeks  as  a  nation,  with  the 
Jews,  who  cultivate  no  arts,  but  who  excel  all  others  in  the 
debasing  pursuit  of  gain,  (f) 


CHAPTER    III. 

FORM  AND    PROPORTION. 

115.  THE  bones  comprising  the  skeleton,  play  an  important 
part  in  the  production  of  form  and  over  nearly  the  whole  body, 
depressions  and  prominences  dependent  on  the  bones  may  be 
observed. 

116.  The  forms  of  the  bones  are  constant ;  or,  at  least,  un- 
dergo but  slight  modifications  during  motion.     On  the  contrary, 
the  soft  parts  are  constantly  modified  by  contraction,  distension, 
and  change  of  direction.     The  movement  of  a  limb,  cannot 
change  the  proper  form  of  the  bone ;  and,  when  we  observe  a 
bony  projection  changed  to  a  depression,  we  look  for  the  cause, 
not  on  the  bone  itself,  but  in  the  surrounding  parts.     It  must 
also  be  observed,  that  the  extremity  of  a  bone,  will  always 
occupy  the  same  position  relatively  to  the  bone  of  which  it 
forms  a  part ;  sometimes  producing  a  depression,  and  at  others, 
a  projection,  according  to  the  position  or  movement  of  the  limb. 
Take  for  example,  the   elbow-joint.      When   the  fore-arm  is 
stretched  on  the  arm  the  joint  is  marked  by  a  depression.-    By 
changing  the  movement  of  the  limb,  this  depression  is  trans- 
formed into  a  strong  projection.     Still,  the  projection  and  de- 
pression, will,  under  all  circumstances,  be  situated  at  the  same 
distance  from  the  wrist. 

117.  The  shape  and  proportion  of  the  head  is  decided  by  the 
bones.     Indeed,  all  the  varieties  of  form  characterizing  indi- 
viduals, and  the  different  races  of  men,  belong  to  the  skeleton. 
Therefore,  a  knowledge  of  the  bones  is  of  importance  to  the 


54  STUDY    OF  ART. 

artist.  On  the  form,  and  especially  on  the  direction  of  the 
bones,  depend  those  of  the  limbs,  whose  articulations  with  the 
trunk  it  is  impossible  to  understand  without  a  careful  study  of 
their  particular  forms. 

118.  A  bone  is  generally  distinguished   by   anatomists   as 
having  two  parts,  the  body  and  extremities.   Any  protuberance, 
eminence,  or  projecting  part  of  a  bone,  is  called  a  process. 
Processes  generally  obtain  their  names  from  their  size,  form, 
or    use.      Thus   a  large    process    of    a    spherical    form,   is 
called  the  caput  or  head ;  if  the  head  is  flattened,  it  is  called 
condyle. 

119.  The  bones  of  every  part  of  the  frame  are  so   nicely 
adapted  to  each  other,  that  the  end  of  every  one  is  exactly  re- 
ceived by,  or,  admits  the  end  of  another.     This  connection  of 
the  bones  is  called  their  articulation.     These  articulations  are 
termed  movable,  immovable,  and  mixed. 

120.  The  skeleton  is  formed  by  the  union  of  all  the  bones, 
and  determines  the  size,  the  characteristic  form,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  the  figure.     In  a  word,  it  is  the  frame-work  of  the 
edifice.      The   height  of  the  skeleton  cannot  alter  excepting 
under  the  influence  of  certain  diseases  affecting  the  osseous 
tissue,  or  the  decay  that  attends  old  age. 

121.  The  bones  are  the  hardest  part  of  the  economy.   Every- 
thing in  their  structure  tends  to  give  them  solidity,  and  mobi- 
lity.    By  anatomists,  they  are  subdivided  into  long,  broad,  and 
short.    The  long  bones  prevail  chiefly  in  the  limbs.    The  broad 
bones  protect  the  cavities.     The  short  bones  are  found  in  the 
extremities,  properly  so  called.     These  arrangements  have  a 
reference  to  the  uses  of  the  different  parts.     In  the  mobility, 
and  at  the  same  time,  solidity  of  the  feet  and  hands,  we  per- 
ceive the  importance  of,  and  necessity  for,  the  presence  of  short 
bones.     The  short  and  solid  bones  of  the  foot  for  example, 
united  by  strong  ligaments,  and  forming  an  elastic  arch,  resist 
the  effect  of  falls  in  the  lower  extremities,  yield  to  the  move- 
ments of  progression,  and,  at  the  same  time,  sustain  the  whole 


FORM   AND   PROPORTION.  55 

weight  of  the  body.  The  structure  of  the  hand,  by  its  strength, 
and  the  number  of  its  articulations,  enables  it  to  seize  heavy 
and  voluminous  bodies  as  well  as  to  handle  the  most  delicate. 

122.  The  more  important,  or  vital  organs,  the  brain,  for  in- 
stance, are  protected  by  the  broad  bones.     The  osseous  cage- 
work,  or  thorax,  enclosing   the  heart   and  lungs,  serves  the 
double  purpose  of  protection  and  motion ;  mobility  being  essen- 
tial to  the  play  of  the  lungs. 

123.  The  intimate  structure  of  the  bones  is  complex.     They 
are  united  together,  or  rather,  meet  each  other  by  those  articular 
surfaces  called  processes,  covered  with  cartilages.     These  carti- 
lages are  formed  of  a  simple  elastic  substance.     Their  use  is 
to  regulate  the  articular  surfaces  and  facilitate  the  movements 
of  the  joints.     The  bones  themselves  are  kept  in  apposition  at 
the  joints  by  ligaments,  composed  of  a  white,  compact,  fibrous 
tissue,  stipple  and  of  great  solidity. 

124.  Of  the  forms  of  the  bones,  some  are  prismatic,  some 
triangular,  some  cylindrical,  others,  quadrilateral.     They  pre- 
sent on  their  surfaces,  furrows,  grooves,  and  fissures.     In  them 
may  be  observed  also,  cells,  sinuses,  and  protuberances. 

125.  The  bones  are  two  hundred  in  number,  including  the 
rotulce  and  sesamoid  bones,  not  usually  reckoned  with  the  bones 
of  the  skeleton ;  but,  as  the  greater  number  of  these  bones  are 
in  pairs,  that  is,  exist  to  the  right  and  left,  there  remain,  in  fact, 
but  one  hundred  and  seventeen  bones  to  be  studied ;  of  which, 
thirty-four  are  single  or  fellowless  bones,  being  placed  in  the 
middle  plane  of  the  body. 

126.  The  skeleton  may  be  divided  into  the  head,  the  trunk, 
and  the  extremities.     The  osseous  trunk  comprises  the  verte- 
bral column,  the  chest  or  thorax,  formed  by  the  ribs  and  breast- 
bone, arid  the  pelvis.     The  limbs  are  designated  as  the  superior 
and  inferior. 

127.  The  head  as  the  centre  of  thought  and  expression,  de- 
mands careful  study.     The  os  frontis  or  frontal  bone,  has  high 
ridges,  on  which  the  eye-brows  are  placed,  and  hollow  chambers, 


56  STUDY   OF   AKT. 

called  sinuses,  which  are  wanting  in  the  child.  John  Bell  re- 
marks, "  that  these  sinuses  being  hollow,  add  strength  to  the 
voice,  and  that  he  had  observed  them  very  large  in  a  giantess." 
The  ancients  represented  their  deities  with  these  projecting 
sinuses ;  and  Jupiter,  Neptune,  Pluto,  and  Hercules,  were  all 
celebrated  for  having  awful  voices.  Moreover,  the  muscles 
which  knit  the  brows,  project  with  more  force  when  the  sinus 
is  capacious.  In  drawing  children  it  must  be  remembered  that 
no  sinus  appears  till  after  the  age  of  fifteen. 

128.  The  parietal  bones  are  essential  to  the  character  of  the 
head.     In  a  fine  head,  they  are  neither  elevated  nor  depressed, 
but  continue  the  shape  of  the  frontal  bone,  and  gradually  unite 
the  back  of  the  head  with  the  front. 

129.  The  occipital  bone  holds  up  the  back  of  the  brain,  gives 
origin  to  many  of  the  greater  muscles  that  move  the  head  and 
neck,  contains  the  lesser  brain,  and  transmits  the  spinal  marrow. 

130.  The  temporal  bone   is   remarkable   for   its   processes, 
essential  to  the  drawing  of  the  head.     First,  the  zygomatic  pro- 
cess, the  arch  under  which  the  temporal  muscle  acts.     It  joins 
the  cheek  bone,  and  gives  form  to  the  cheek.     At  its  termina- 
tion is  the  orifice  for  hearing;    and   underneath,  the  mastoid 
process,  that  receives  the  muscles  of  the  neck.     This  process 
is  a  guide  to  the  artist  in  drawing  the  head. 

131.  The  face  is  composed  of  many  small  bones,  under  the 
names  of  upper  and  lower  jaw.     The  upper  jaw  is  most  essen- 
tial to  the  form.     First  comes  the  nasal  process,  which  forms 
the  sides  of  the  nose.     It  is  arched  outwards,  to  give  the  nos- 
tril shape ;  its  sides  support  the  nasal  bones,  and  the  cartilages 
of  the  wings  of  the  nose  are  fixed  to  its  edges.     The  upper 
jaw  is  the  basis  on  which  the  cheek  bones  stand.     The  alveolar 
process  grows  with  the  teeth,  and  is  absorbed  with  age.     In  the 
infant,  the  jaw  not  being  formed,  the  shape  of  the  mouth  is  not 
altered;   but  the  moment  the  teeth  and  alveolar  process  fall 
away,  the  lower  jaw  rises  up,  and  the  lips  double  in.     The 
external  form  is  then  one  of  the  strongest  marks  of  age. 

132.  The  cheek  bones  join  the  zygomatic  process,  and  form 


FORM   AND  PROPORTION.  57 

part  of  the  eye-sockets.  Then  comes  the  lower  jaw,  square  at 
the  chin,  angular  where  it  turns  up  to  go  under  the  zygomatic 
process,  and  nearly  straight  from  the  chin  to  the  angle,  though 
it  was  circular  in  Napoleon,  and  is  so  inclined  in  the  Apollo. 

133.  A  knowledge  of  the  skull  is  essential  to  the  artist  in  its 
national  as  well  as  individual  distinctions.     Cuvier  reduces  the 
variety  of  our  species  to  three.     The  Caucasian,  or  white ;  the 
Mongolian,  or  yellow ;  the  Negro,  or  black. 

134.  The  Caucasian  is  known  by  the  beauty  of  the  oval- 
formed  head,  varying  in  complexion  and  the  color  of  the  hair. 
From  this  variety,  the  most  civilized  nations  have  originated. 

135.  The  Mongolian  is  known  by  the  high  cheek-bones,  flat 
visage,  narrow  and  oblique  eyes,  straight,  black  hair,  scanty 
beard,  and  olive  complexion. 

136.  The  Negro  is  marked  by  black  complexion,  woolly  hair, 
compressed  cranium,  and  flat  nose. 

137.  The  vertebral  column,  the  ribs,  and  the  sternum,  form 
the  middle  portion  of  the  skeleton. 

138.  The  spine  is  as  important  to  beauty  of  form,  as  the 
head  to  intellectual  expression.     If  it  is  badly  formed,  the  finest 
limbs  dwindle ;  the  finest  features  and  skull  become  distorted, 
and  the  finest  hands  grow  long  and  skinny.      If  it  is  finely 
formed,  every  part  of  the  body  partakes  more  or  less  of  its 
beauty. 

139.  The  spine  is  composed  of  twenty-four  distinct  bones, 
called  vertebra,  from  the  Latin,  vertere,  to  turn.     They  conduct 
the  spinal  marrow,  support  the  whole  weight  of  the  trunk,  head, 
and  arms,  and  perform,  at  certain  points,  the  chief  turnings  of 
the  body. 

140.  The  vertebrae,  form  one  long  column,  which  extends  from 
the  head  to  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  and  is  divided  princi- 
pally into  two  parts ;  the  upper  part  called  the  true  vertebrae, 
and  the  lower,  the  false,  because  in  adults  they  are  immovable. 
The  true  vertebrae  are  subdivided  into  three  classes ;  the  cervical, 

3* 


58  STUDY  OF  ART. 

the  dorsal,  and  the  lumbar  vertebra.     The  false  vertebrae  form 
the  sacrum  and  coccygis. 

141.  Each  bone  of  the  spine  may  be  considered  with  regard 
to  its  body,  processes,  notches  and  cavities.     The  body  of  a  ver- 
tebra, nearly  cylindrical,  is  concave  in  front,  and  convex  be- 
hind, forming  the  cavity  of  the  spine,  which  contains  and  trans- 
mits the  spinal  marrow. 

142.  On   each   side   of  the   body  of  the  vertebra  are  the 
transverse  processes ;  these  articulate  with  the  ribs.     The  four 
others  are  called  oblique,  or  articular  processes,  from  their  sit- 
uation.    They  are  smaller  than  the  transverse,  and  are  placed 
two  on  the  upper  and  two  on  the  lower  part  of  each  vertebra,  and 
the  two  superior  processes  of  one  vertebra,  being  articulated  with 
the  two  inferior  of  the  next,  firmly  connect  them  together. 

143.  The  cavities  of  the  vertebrae  coincide,  and  form  a  long 
bony  channel,  in  which  the  spinal  marrow  is  placed.     There 
are  also  four  notches  in  each  vertebra,  two  at  the  upper  end, 
and  two  at  the  lower,  between  the  oblique  processes  and  the 
body  of  the  bone.     These  form  a  passage  for  several  vessels 
and  nerves. 

144.  The  vertebrce  are  arranged  according  to  the  neck,  back, 
and  loins.     The  cervical  vertebrce,  those  of  the  neck,  are  seven 
in  number.     They  are  of  a  firmer  texture  than  those  of  the 
other  parts  of  the  spine,  and  serve  to  facilitate  the  motions  of 
the  head. 

145.  The  dorsal  vertebrce,  or  those  of  the  back,  are  twelve  in 
number,  and  are  of  a  middle  size,  between  those  of  the  neck 
and  loins. 

146.  The  lumbar  vertebrae,  or  those  of  the  loins,  are  five  in 
number.     These  are  larger  and  stronger  than  those  of  the  back, 
and  have  their  spinous  processes  placed  at  a  greater  distance 
from  each  other,  which  is  necessary  to  freedom  of  motion. 
They  are  thick  and  massive,  forming  a  base  for  the  back,  neck 
and  head,  which  they  support  and  balance.     It  is  necessary  for 
the  artist  to  observe  the  forms  of  the  vertebrce,  but  more  par- 
ticularly the  position  of  the  vertebra  prominens,  where  the  back 


FORM  AND  PROPORTION.  59 

ends  and  the  neck  begins.     On  the  position  of  this  vertebra, 
depends  the  beauty  of  the  shoulders. 

147.  The  bodies  of  the  vertebra  are  united  to  each  other  by 
substances  called  ^ro-cartilages  (discs)  of  great  strength.    They 
are  elastic,  and  form  a  kind  of  partition  between  the  different 
vertebra,  by  which  means  the  several  motions  of  the  trunk  are 
performed  with  facility.     By  their  aid,  the  column  moves  in 
nearly  all  directions  with  perfect  safety  to  the  spinal  marrow 
and  nerves ;  and  on  their  action  depends  the  elasticity  of  the 
vertebral  column.     In  age,  this  ligament  becomes  shrivelled, 
and  loses  its  elasticity,  which  accounts  for  the  stoop  and  decrease 
in  stature  of  people  who  are  advanced  in  life. 

148.  The  sacrum,  with  the  coccyx,  terminates  the  vertebral 
column  inferiorly,  and  connects  it  with  the  pelvis.     By  its  broad 
base,  it  articulates  with  the  last  lumbar  vertebra,  and  by  its 
summit,  with  the  coccygeal  bone,  or  coccyx.     The  sacrum  is 
composed  of  five  vertebra,  distinct  from  each  other  in  youth, 
but  which  unite  together  in  the  maturity  of  the  figure.     The 
adult  sacrum  then  forms  but  one  bone.     The  canal  for  the 
spinal  marrow  passes  through  it,  but  the  medulla  itself  does 
not  extend  so  low. 

149.  The  coccyx  derives  its  name  from  its  supposed  resem- 
blance to  the  beak  of  a  cuckoo.     It  differs  decidedly  from  the 
vertebrae,  having  neither  processes  nor  cavity  for  the  spinal 
marrow ;  neither  does  it  transmit  the  nerves.     Its  uses  are  to 
support  the  rectum,  and  enable  us  to  sit  with  ease. 

150.  Thus,  the  spine,  as  we  have  seen,  answers  many  impor- 
tant purposes.     It  protects  the  abdominal  thoracic  viscera.     It 
supports  the  head,  and  gives  strength  and  grace  to  the  whole 
body.     From  the  number  of  its  articulations,  it  admits  of  great 
freedom  of  motion,  and,  from  its  numerous  processes,  ligaments 
and  cartilages,  it  partakes  of  the  strength  and  firmness  of  one 
entire  bone.     The  student  in  art  must  also  observe  the  form 
and  direction  of  its  curves.     In  the  neck,  at  the  top,  the  spine 
projects  a  little  forward,  in  order  to  support  the  head.     A  little 
lower  down,  it  curves  outwardly,  and  thereby  increases  the 


60  STUDY  OF  ART. 

cavity  of  the  chest.  In  the  loins,  it  projects  forward,  approach- 
ing the  centre  of  gravity.  Toward  its  inferior  extremity,  it  again 
recedes  backward,  and  affords  room  for  the  cavity  called  the 
pelvis. 

151.  The  thorax,  or  chest,  is  formed  by  the  vertebral  column 
behind ;  the  sternum  in  front ;  and,  laterally,  by  the  ribs,  twelve 
on  either  side. 

152.  The  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  is  a  mesial-bone,  or  chain 
of  bones.     In  a  young  person,  it  is  composed  of  a  series  of  dis- 
tinct bones,  which  unite  as  age  advances,  and  forms  but  one. 
Its  upper  extremity  is  broad,  and  notched  in  the  middle.     At 
each  side  of  the  bone,  there  are  surfaces  for  articulation  with 
the  collar-bones,  and  with  the  cartilages  of  the  seven  ribs.     At 
its  lower  extremity,  is  the  xiphoid  appendix,  or  cartilage,  whose 
form  and  structure  vary  considerably. 

153.  The  ribs,  twenty-four  in  number,  are  arches  partly  bony, 
and  partly  cartilaginous,  whose  dimensions  vary  according  to 
the  regions  they  occupy.     By  anatomists,  they  are  divided  into 
fourteen  true,  and  ten  false.    The  true  ribs,  seven  on  each  side, 
are  articulated  directly  to  the  sternum.     The  cartilaginous  ex- 
tremities of  the  false  ribs  do  not  proceed  so  far,  but  are  support- 
ed by  the  attachment  of  one  to  another,  excepting  the  two 
lowest  on  each  side,  which  are  not  attached  anteriorly  to  the 
other  ribs.     Posteriorly,  they  are  articulated  to  the  body  of  a 
vertebra  only,  and  not  with  a  transverse  process.     This  disposi- 
tion is  necessary  for  performing  many  of  the  motions  of  the 
trunk,  which  depend  on  the  two  last  vertebra  of  the  back.    Had 
they  been  attached  like  the  rest,  the  motions  of  these  two  vertebra, 
and,  consequently,  the  motions  of  the  whole  body  would  have 
been  greatly  impeded.     The  uses  of  the  ribs  are,  first,  to  form  a 
cavity,  called  the  thorax ;  second,  to  afford  attachment  to  various 
muscles ;  third,  to  assist  in  respiration ;  fourth,  to  secure  the 
heart  and  lungs  from  external  injury. 

154.  "Whilst  examining  the  ribs,  the  student's  attention  should 
be  directed  to  their  general  form ;  also,  to  the  head  of  the  rib, 


FORM   AND   PROPORTION.  61 

articulating  generally  between  the  beads  of  thu  vertebra,  and  to 
the  tuberosity  resting  on,  and  articulated  with  the  transverse 
process  of  the  vertebrae.  The  anterior  extremity  of  the  rib  is 
thin  and  terminates  in  a  cartilage.  The  body  of  the  bone  is 
curved  and  twisted ;  it  also  has  projections  for  muscular  attach- 
ments. 

155.  In  direction,  the  ribs  incline  downwards,  and  this  angle 
increases  from  the  first  to  the  last.    The  thorax  itself  thus  form- 
ed, is  of  a  conical  shape,  with  the  base  downwards,  and  the 
summit  above.     A  form  entirely  different  from  the  living  model, 
in  which,  on  the  contrary,  the  chest  appears  large  in  the  line 
of  the  shoulders,  and  contracted  at  the  lower  part. 

156.  The  shoulder  consists  of  two  bones,  the  clavicula,  or 
collar-bone,  and  the  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade.     In  the  female 
figure,  the  collar-bone  is  longer,  thinner,  and  less  curved  than 
in  the  male.     In  its  form,  it  presents  a  convexity  and  a  con- 
cavity.    The  head  is  articulated  with  the  sternum.     The  other 
extremity  is  broader  and  flatter,  and  connected  with  a  process 
of  the  scapula,  called  acromion.     It  is  also  fixed  to  the  sternum 
by  ligaments,  and  on  its  lower  surface  near  the  acromial  end, 
it  has  a  tubercle  that  gives  attachment  to  the  powerful  ligaments 
connecting  the   caracoid  process  in  the  shoulder-blade.      The 
collar-bone  plays  an  important  part  in  the  movements  of  the 
shoulder,  as  it  regulates  the  motions  of  the  scapula,  preventing 
it  from  being  brought  too  far  forward,  or  driven  too  far  back. 

157.  The  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade,  is  a  large  and  rather 
thin  bone,  extremely  movable,  and  situated  at  the  superior  and 
lateral  portion  of  the  back  by  the  side  of  the  vertebral  column. 
It  lies  on  a  bed  of  muscle,  and  moves  about,  as  it  were,  on  a 
cushion.     It  is  the  principal  cause  of  the  various  markings  of 
the  shoulders ;  and  unless  its  form  and  motions  are  understood 
it  cannot  be  correctly  represented. 

158.  In  shape,  it  is  nearly  triangular;  is  convex  externally; 
and  concave  internally,  to  fit  its  form  to  the  ribs.     It  has  three 
unequal  sides ;   the  largest,  called  the  basis,  is  next  to  the 


62  STUDY   OF  ART. 

vertebra.  The  side  next  in  size  is  below,  and  the  least  side  is 
at  the  upper  part.  The  spine  of  the  scapula  is  a  strong  ridge 
of  bone,  that  terminates  in  a  broad  process  at  the  top  of  the 
shoulder,  called  the  acromion,  with  winch  the  collar-bone  arti- 
culates. This  spine  divides  the  muscles  on  the  scapula.  It  has 
also  another  process  on  its  upper  part,  called  the  coracoid  pro- 
cess, and  a  third  called  glenoid  for  the  articulation  of  the  arm- 
bone,  to  which  it  serves  as  a  fulcrum,  and  by  varying  its  posi- 
tion, gives  great  scope  to  the  motions  of  the  arm. 

159.  The  pelvis   is   composed  of  a  circle  of  large,  strong 
bones,  standing  like  an  arch  between  the  lower  limbs  and  the 
trunk.     It  gives  a  powerful  support  to  the  body.     Its  move- 
ments are  free  and  beautiful,  leaving  the  trunk  above,  and 
moving  on  the  thigh-bones  below.     John  Bell  remarks,  it  is 
so  truly  the  centre  of  all  the  great  motions  of  the  body,  that 
when  one  believes  the  motion  to  be  in  the  higher  parts  of  the 
spine,  it  is  either  the  last  vertebra  of  the  loins  bending  on  the 
top  of  the  pelvis  (a  rare  and  essential  beauty  of  form),  or  the 
pelvis  rolling  on  the  thigh-bones,  (in  which  there  can  be  no 
grace  of  motion). 

160.  In  the  adult,  the  pelvis  is  composed  of  four  bones,  the 
two  ossa  innominata,  or  bones  of  the  haunches  ;  the  sacrum,  and 
the  coccyx.     The  ossa  innominata,  or  coxal  bones,  sometimes 
also  called  iliac,  articulate  strongly  with  the  sacrum,  and  are 
extremely  voluminous. 

161.  Each  os  innominatum  is  divided  into  three  bones;  the 
os  ilium,  os  ischium,  and  os  pubis.     The  os  ilium,  or  haunch- 
bone,  forms  the  upper  and  most  considerable  part  of  this  bone. 
It  is  articulated  posteriorly  to  the  os  sacrum,  and  by  a  firm  car- 
tilaginous substance,  anteriorly,  to  the  os  pubis  ;  and  posteriorly, 
to  the  os  ischium.    The  os  ischium,  or  hip-bone,  forms  the  lower 
part  of  the  pelvis.    It  is  divided  into  body,  tuberosity,  and  ramus. 
The  tuberosity  of  the  os  ischium,  the  lowest  part  of  the  trunk, 
is  large  and  irregular  and  serves  to  support  us  in  sitting.     The 


FORM    AND    PROPORTION.  63 

os  pubis  forms  the  fore  part  of  the  pelvis,  and  is  the  least  divi- 
sion of  the  os  innominatum. 

162.  There  is  formed  by  the  reunion  of  these  bones  a  vast 
cavity  with  solid  walls  more  or  less  deep.     This  osseous  cavity 
is  notched  behind,  where  rests  the  vertebral  column,  so  called. 
It  is  still  more  deeply  notched  in  front  over  the  pubic  portion 
of  the  pelvis.     Beneath  the  symphisis  of  the  pubis  is  the  pubic 
arch,  wider  in  the  female  figure  than  in  the  male.     The  oblique 
position  of  the  pelvis,  with  respect  to  the  vertebral  column  must 
be  carefully  noted.     In  woman  the  pelvis  is  much  broader  than 
in  man,  the  upper  margin  less  curved,  and  the  cotyloid  cavities, 
that  receive  the  heads  of  the  thigh  bones,  situated  more  apart. 

163.  Haydon   remarks,  "the  form  of  the  pelvis  is  charac- 
teristic in  the  highest  degree.     In  man  the  shoulders  are  broad 
and  the  haunches  small ;  the  thighs  in  a  direct  line  with  the 
body,  which  gives  a  firm  step,  graceful  and  noble ;  while  the 
breadth  of  the  female  hip  causes  the  gentle  approach  of  the 
knees  in  woman ;  the  step  is  therefore  hesitating,  tender,  timid, 
unsure,  and  bewitching ;  the  most  lovely  women  always  walk 
with  a  timid  apprehension;  they  cannot  help  it;  they  do  it 
from  inherent  construction." 

164.  The  arm  is  divided  in  two  parts,  that  are  articulated  at 
the  elbow.     That  part  from  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow  is  pro- 
perly called  the  arm ;  the  other  part,  from  the  elbow  to  the 
wrist,  the  fore-arm.     The  os  humeri,  or  arm-bone,  is  round  in 
the  middle,  but  twists  into  a  hinge-joint  at  the  elbow.     At  its 
lower  extremity  are  two  condyles  ;  their  chief  use  is,  to  give  a 
large  fulcrum  to  the  muscles  of  the  fore-arm  which  rise  from 
these  points.     The  outer  tubercle  gives  rise  to  the  extending 
muscles  ;  the  inner  which  is  largest,  to  the  bending  muscles ; 
for  more  power  is  required  to  bend,  grasp,  and  pull,  than  merely 
to  extend ;  which,  being  an  antagonist  power,  does  not  require 
the  same  mechanical  provision  for  strength. 

165.  In  drawing  the  arm,  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that 
the  inner  tubercle  is  the  lowest.     Therefore  the  hinge-joint  is 


64  STUDY  OF  AKT. 

oblique,  which  occasions  the  hand  and  arm  to  fall  naturally 
towards  the  face  and  breast  when  crossed. 

166.  The  fore-arm  is  composed  of  two  bones,  the  ulna,  or 
elbow-bone,  and  the  radius.     The  ulna  is  less  than  the  arm- 
bone,  and  becomes  gradually  smaller  as  it  approaches  the  wrist. 
At  its  upper  extremity  it  has  two  processes  and  two  cavities. 
The  chief  use  of  the  ulna  is,  to  regulate  the  motions  of  the 
radius,  which  is  situated  on  the  interior  side  of  the  fore-arm, 
and  receives  its  name  from  its  supposed  resemblance  to  the 
spoke  of  a  wheel.     The  radius  is  thicker  and  shorter  than  the 
ulna,  and  hollowed  at  its  upper  extremity  to  admit  the  outer 
condyle  of  the  humerus.      It   is   admitted   laterally  into   the 
sigmoid  cavity  of  the  ulna  ;  and  the  cylindrical  part,  turning  in 
this  cavity,  permits  the  hand  to  be  moved  round  as  on  a  pivot. 
The  lower  extremity  of  the  radius  is  larger  and  stronger  than 
the  upper ;  and  the  lower  part  of  the  ulna  is  the  smallest,  so 
that  they  mutually  strengthen  each  other. 

167.  In  fine  nature,  the  end  of  the  elbow,  and  shape  of  the 
radius  at  the  wrist,  are  always  visible,  even  in  the  most  deli- 
cate female  hand ;  but  from  a  false  taste,  they  are  sometimes 
smoothed  away,  so  that  no  appearance  of  their  influence  on  the 
form  is  seen. 

168.  A  minute  study  of  all  the  bones  of  the  hand  is  neces- 
sary to  the  artist.     He  should  also  make  himself  familiar  with 
their  general  form  when  united. 

169.  First,  is  the  wrist;  then  the  bones  on  the  wrist;  and 
lastly,  the  fingers  on  the  bones.     These  are  technically  called 
the  carpus,  the  metacarpus,  and  the  phalanges. 

170.  The  carpus,  or  wrist,  consists  of  eight  small,  irregular 
shaped  bones,  placed  in  two  unequal  rows.     Those  of  the  upper 
row  are  articulated  with  the  ulna  and  radius,  and  those  of  the 
lower  row  with  the  metacarpus.     These  bones  are  convex  on 
the  back,  and  slightly  concave  on  the  front  towards  the  palm 
of  the  hand.     They  are  covered  on  the  back  with  cartilages, 
and  secured  by  several  strong  ligaments. 


FORM   AND   PROPORTION.  65 

171.  The  metacarpus,  or  hand,  consists  of  four  bones,  which 
serve  to  support  the  fingers ;  these  bones  are  of  a  cylindrical 
form,  somewhat  convex  on  the  back,  and  a  little  concave  internal- 
ly where  they  form  the  palm  of  the  hand.     At  their  upper  ex- 
tremities they  articulate  with  the  bones  of  the  wrist;  and  at 
their  lower  extremities,  with  the  first  phalanx  of  the  fingers. 
The  little  finger  metacarpal  bone  turns  towards  the  fore-finger 
metacarpal  bone;  a  knowledge  of  which  is   essential  to  the 
proper  formation  of  the  hand. 

172.  The  five  fingers  of  each  hand  consist  of  fifteen  bones, 
called  phalanges.      The   bones    of  the  first  phalanx   are  the 
longest,  and  united  to  those  of  the  metacarpus.     All  the  bones 
of  the  wrist,  hand,  and  fingers,  twenty-seven  in  each  hand,  are 
articulated  with  each  other,  and  their  articulations  are  strength- 
ened by  ligaments. 

173.  The  fingers  have  free  motions,  and  the  great  distinction 
between  the  human  hand  and  the  hand-paw  of  the  quadruped, 
is  the  vast  and  perfect  power  of  grasping  by  the  thumb.     The 
lion  has  no  power  to  grasp,  because  he  is  without  the  abductor 
muscles,  which  form  the  ball  of  the  human  thumb. 

174.  The   bones   of  the  fingers  are  grooved,  and   slightly 
arched  outwards.     The  middle  finger  is  the  longest,  and  is 
straight.     The  little,  and  fore-fingers,  bend  inwardly  towards 
each  other.     The  little  finger  inclines  to  the  ring  finger,  which 
at  once  gives  the  drawing  of  the  hand ;  but,  unless  an  artist 
thoroughly  understands  its  internal  construction,  he  will  never 
be  able  to  give  a  perfect  representation  of  its  external  form. 

175.  The  femur,  or  thigh-bone,  is  the  largest  and  strongest 
in  the  human  frame  ;  of  a  cylindrical  shape,  convex  before,  and 
behind  somewhat  concave,  where  it  receives  several  muscles. 
As  is  usual  with  all  the  long  bones,  it  is  twisted  on  itself,  and 
otherwise  remarkably  curved. 

176.  At  the  upper  extremity  of  the  bone  is  a  head,  forming 
the  large  portion  of  a  sphere,  unequally  divided,  and  turned 
inwards.     This  head  is  received  into  the  great  cotyloid  cavity 


66  STUDY  OF  ART. 

of  the  hip-bone,  with  which  it  forms  the  hip-joint.  This  ex- 
tremity of  the  thigh  bone  has  also  a  neck  which  is  nearly  hori- 
zontal with  the  body  of  the  bone,  and  also  two  processes ;  the 
larger  called  the  trochanter  major,  is  situated  externally ;  the 
inner,  called  the  trochanter  minor  is  less.  It  should  be  observed, 
that  in  fine  nature,  the  trochanter  major  is  always  apparent. 
Muscles  arise  all  round  it,  but  it  is  never  entirely  covered. 
The  femur  is  articulated  at  the  trunk  by  means  of  a  capsular 
ligament,  which,  adhering  to  the  edge  of  the  great  cotyloid  cav- 
ity, surrounds  the  head  of  the  bone,  strengthens  the  connection, 
and  permits  it  to  move  in  all  directions.  The  lower  extrem- 
ity of  the  bone  is  furnished  with  two  processes,  called  the  con- 
dyles,  between  which  is  a  smooth  cavity,  whereby  this  bone  is 
united  to  that  of  the  leg  by  a  hinge-like  articulation. 

177.  The  inner  condyle  is  the  largest,  to  counterbalance  the 
oblique  position  of  the  thigh  bones.     On  the  fore  part  of  this 
extremity,  glides  the  pan-bone ;  and  over  the  back  part  come 
the  hamstrings.     There  is  also  a  deep  notch  where  lie  the  great 
arteries,  veins,  and  nerves  of  the  leg. 

178.  The  leg  is  composed  of  two  bones;  the  tibia,  which  is 
the  larger  and  inner  one,  and  the  fibula,  which  is  less  in  size. 
The  tibia  is  of  a  prismatic  form,  having  the  back  part  the 
broadest.     Anteriorly,  it  has  a  prominent  ridge  called  the  shin. 
The  upper  extremity  of  the  tibia  is  furnished  with  two  cavities 
which  receive  the  condyles  of  the  femur.     At  the  lower  extre- 
mity, is  a  transverse  cavity  by  which  it  is  articulated  with  the 
uppermost  bone  of  the  foot.     There  is  likewise,  another  cavity 
at  the  outer  side  of  each  extremity,  which  receives  the  lower 
end  of  the  fibula. 

179.  The  form  of  the  shaft  of  the  tibia,  and  more  especially  of 
the  inner  and  anterior  surface,  cannot  be  too  carefully  studied.  In 
a  finely  formed  shin  it  curves  gently  outward  till  it  unites  with 
the  instep ;  and,  as  it  terminates,  forms  the  inner  ankle ;  which 
in  man,  is  the  highest ;  and  in  the  quadruped,  when  he  stands 
like  man,  the  lowest. 

180.  The  fibula,  or  outer  bone,  is  less  than  the  tibia,  and  its 


FORM  AND  PROPORTION.  67 

upper  extremity  does  not  reach  quite  as  high.  It  is  articulated 
at  both  ends  with  the  tibia.  The  lower  extremity  forms  the 
coronoid  process,  which  is  flat  internally  ;  and  externally,  con- 
vex ;  forming  the  outer  ankle,  which  is  a  little  lower  and  a  little 
behind  the  inner. 

181.  The  inner  ankle  lies  a  little  obliquely  forward;  deter- 
mining the  obliquity  of  the  foot,  which  must  be  of  importance, 
because  there  are  so  many  provisions  for  it.     First,  the  oblique 
position  of  the  trochanters  ;  next,  the  oblique  position  of  all  the 
muscles  from  the  groin  to  the  trochanters  ;  and  lastly,  the  obli- 
quity of  the  ankles.     The  inner  ankle  a  little  one  side,  which 
turns  the  foot  outward. 

182.  In  forming  the  leg,  thigh,  hip,  and  foot,  it  is  important 
to  remark  their  relative  positions.     When  the  knee  is  square 
towards  you,  the  ankles  and  foot  turn  out ;  when  the  ankles  are 
square,  the  knee  turns  in ;  ajid  when  the  foot  turns  a  little  out, 
still  the  knee  is  not  quite  square. 

183.  The  knee-pan,  technically  called  the  rotula  or  patella, 
is  a  flat  bone  placed  at  the  fore  part  of  the  knee-joint.     Its  use 
is,  to  defend  the  articulation  of  the  knee  from  external  injury. 
It  also  tends  to  increase  the  power  of  the  extensor  muscles  of 
the  legs,  by  removing  their  direction  farther  from  the  centre  of 
motion. 

184.  The  foot  forms  a  right  angle  with  the  leg ;  it  is  com- 
posed of  the  tarsus,  metatarsus,  and  phalanges,  or  toes,  making 
in  all  twenty-seven  bones. 

185.  The  tarsus,  or  instep,  is  composed  of  seven  large  bones, 
which  form  a  firm  and  elastic  arch  for  the  support  of  the  body. 
The  astralagus  alone,  of  all  the  bones  of  the  foot,  contributes 
to  form  the  ankle-joint ;  and  the  foot  cannot  be  finely  formed, 
without  understanding  the  position  and   influence  of  this  im- 
portant bone.     It  articulates  both  with  the  tibia,  and  the  fibula 
on  its  upper  and  convex  side ;  and  below,  with  the  calcaneum. 
The  calcaneum  is  the  largest  bone  of  the  foot,  is  irregular  in 
its  form,  and  the  posterior  half  projects  backwards,  constituting 


68  STUDY    OF  ART. 

the  heel,  into  which  enters  the  tendo  Achillis ;  the  great  cord 
for  the  action  of  the  calf.  The  anterior  bones  of  the  tarsus,  five 
in  number,  form  a  sort  of  ridge,  whose  superior  surface  is  con- 
vex transversely. 

186.  Five  long  prismatic  bones  compose  the  metatarsus ;  at 
their  base  they  articulate  with  the  bones  of  the  tarsus,  serving 
to  form  the  sole  of  the  foot,  where  the  tendons  and  nerves  are 
placed  secure  from  pressure.      Anteriorly,  these   bones  form 
condyles  which  articulate  with  the  phalanges. 

187.  The  phalanges,  three  in  number  for  each  toe,  except  for 
the  first  which  has  but  two,  are  disposed  as  in  the  hand.     The 
shortness  of  the  last  two  phalanges  of  each  of  the  smaller  toes, 
and  the  fan-like  shape  of  the  nail-bone  of  the  great  toe,  merit 
attention. 

188.  When  the  foot  is  left  free  and  unconfined,  and  the  great 
toe  distinct,  the  second  toe  is  always  the  longest.     A  foot  de- 
veloped without  restraint  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  parts  of 
the  human  figure.      In   ancient  statues,   hands   are   less  fre- 
quently found  than  feet,  because  they  are  detached  from  sup- 
port, and  therefore  more  liable  to  injury.     The  hands  of  the 
Venus  were  added  by  Bernini,  and  are  said  to  be  very  inferior 
to  the  feet  which  originally  belonged  to  the  statue. 

189.  The  natural  height  of  the  human  figure,  is  eight  heads ; 
and,  in  deciding  the  measurement  of  its  various  parts,  the  head 
is  always  taken  as  the  standard  of  proportion. 

190.  In  studying  the  arrangement  of  the  parts,  we  find  the 
gradation  so  essential  to  harmony,  carefully  preserved.     The 
body  is  longer  than  the  thigh,  and  the  thigh  is  longer  than  the 
leg.     The  arm  is  longer  than  the  fore-arm,  and  the  fore-arm 
is  longer  than  the  hand. 

191.  The  proportions  peculiar  to  the  sexes,  seldom  receive 
that  careful  attention  that  is  necessary  to  truth  of  imitation. 
Every  figure  is  decidedly  marked  in  its  proportions.     These  in 
the  first  place,  distinguish  sex ;  and,  in  the  next,  distinguish 
individuals. 


FORM  AND  PROPORTION.  69 

192.  This  difference  should  be  noticed,  first,  in  the  proportions 
of  the  face  as  marking  sex.    The  peculiarity  on  this  point,  is,  the 
position  of  the  eyes  in  relation  to  the  line  dividing  the  length  of 
the  head  and  face  in  two  equal  parts.    As  a  general  rule,  the  eyes 
in  the  male  head,  stand  directly  on  this  line.     Those  of  the 
female  are  set  a  little  below  it.     The  effect  of  these  different 
divisions  is  truly  characteristic.     In  the  one,  it  is  expressive  of 
manly  confidence  and  courage.     In  the  other  of  feminine  deli- 
cacy and  timidity.     The  variations  upon  this  rule  of  proportion, 
occasioned  by  the  combination  of  temperaments,  are  as  numer- 
ous as  the  human  race ;  and  to  the  artist,  as  well  as  the  physi- 
ognomist, afford  an  inexhaustible  subject  of  study. 

193.  The  difference  in  the  breadth  of  the  shoulders  and  hips 
is  a  more  prominent  mark  of  proportion.     In  the  male  figure, 
the  hips  are  the  narrowest,  and  the  shoulders  the  broadest. 
The  collar-bone  also,  is  more  straight  in  form,  which  makes  a 
square  shoulder,  and  gives  a  more  powerful  fulcrum  to  the  arm. 
Being  more  curved  in  the  female,  she  gains  in  grace  of  form, 
what  she  loses  in  physical  strength. 

194.  In  both  sexes  the  arm  bears  the  same  proportion  to  the 
head.     In  the  fore-arm  there  is  a  marked  difference,  it  being  in 
the  female,  a  nose  shorter  than  in  the  male.     Here  again,  the 
female  gains  in  grace  and  loses  in  power.     Nothing  is  more 
common  in  the  drawing  of  the  figure,  than  inattention  to  the 
true  proportions  of  the  arm  and  fore-arm. 

195.  The  head  is  as  long  as  the  face ;  that  is,  from  the 
bottom  of  the  chin  to  the  roots  of  the  hair.     The  foot  is  as 
long  as  the  head. 

196.  The  head  of  a  child  is  much  larger,  in  proportion  to  the 
figure,  than  in  the  adult,  and,  in  form,  is  much  more  inclined  to 
the  circle  than  the  oval.     The  iris  of  the  eye  is  large,  and 
marks  the  growth  of  the  other  features.    The  nose  is  flat.    The 
cheeks,  plump  and  round.    The  mouth,  somewhat  retired.    The 
ears,  large ;  and  the  whole  together,  heavy.     The  growth  of  the 


70  STUDY  OF  ART. 

teeth,  and  formation  of  the  jaw,  gradually  change  the  whole 
character  of  the  face. 

197.  In  the  progress  of  growth  and  development,  the  hands 
and  feet  are  the  first  parts  of  the  figure  to  attain  their  full  size. 
They  then  look  out  of  proportion.  In  judging  proportion,  no 
figure  should  be  taken  as  a  standard,  that  is  not  fully  developed. 
Every  period  and  season  of  life  has  beauties  peculiarly  and 
appropriately  its  own,  which,  if  included  in  the  representation 
of  any  other,  are  unnatural  and  out  of  place,  and,  therefore, 
fail  to  please. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

MUSCLES    AND    JOINTS. 

198.  WE  have  already  considered  the  bones  as  the  foundation 
of  form.     On  the  bones,  the  muscles  have  their  origin  and  in- 
sertions.   Without  both  muscles  and  bones,  the  animal  machine 
would  have  neither  consistence,  basis,  nor  motion. 

199.  The  shape  and  proportion  of  the  bones,  when  clothed 
with  muscle,  are  more  or  less  visible  in  the  head,  joints,  hands, 
feet  and  shoulders.     To  understand  the  changes  produced  upon 
the  external  surface  by  every  change  of  attitude,  it  is  necessary 
to  learn  the  position  and  uses  of  the  muscles,  and  also  the  form 
and  construction  of  the  joints. 

200.  The  skin  is  the  first  object  of  attention.     It  invests  the 
whole  exterior,  re-producing  the  forms  beneath,  which  are  mo- 
dified by  the  presence  of  the  cellular  tissue.     This  tissue  is  im- 
mediately below  the  skin,  excepting  on  the  neck  and  face, 
where  peculiar  muscles,  called  cutaneous,  adhere  to  the  external 
integument.     The  cellular  tissue  does  not  merely  form  a  sub- 
cutaneous layer ;  it  penetrates  all  the  interstices  of  the  subjacent 
parts,  unites  them  together,  forms  for  them  soft  envelopes,  faci- 
litating  their   reciprocal   actions,    and   protecting   them   from 
violent  shocks.     In  this  tissue,  blood-vessels  and  nervous  fila- 
ments creep  along. 

201.  Beneath  the  sub-cutaneous  cellular  tissue,  we  find  the 
muscles  arranged  in  successive  layers.     They  are  the  active 
organs  of  locomotion  ;  are  of  a  red  color,  more  or  less  deep,  and 
vary  extremely  in  size,  shape,  and  direction.     They  are  com- 


72  STUDY   OF  ART. 

posed  of  fibrils ;  these,  united  in  bundles,  form  fibres ;  these, 
again,  fasciculi,  which  are  united  by  cellular  tissue,  and  provid- 
ed with  numerous  blood-vessels  and  nerves.  They  are  attached 
directly  to  the  bones,  or  indirectly,  by  means  of  tendons. 

202.  The  muscles  are  enveloped  on  all  sides  by  unyielding, 
semi-transparent  membranes,  called  aponeuroses.     These  apo- 
neuroses  are  first  seen  under  the  sub-cutaneous  cellular  mem- 
brane, or  tissue.     They  next  form  sheaths,  exactly  enclosing 
the  muscles  by  sending  partitions  between  them,  proceeding 
even  to  the  bones  themselves. 

203.  Each  muscle  contains  two  kinds  of  fibres ;  viz. :  one  of  a 
soft  nature,  red  in  color,  sensible,  and  irritable,  called  fleshy 
fibres,  which  are  capa,ble  of  contracting.     The  other  kind,  called 
tendinous  fibres,  are  of  a  firmer  texture,  white  and  glistening, 
insensible,  and  without  irritability,  or  the  power  of  contracting. 
The  former  prevail  in  the  thick  part  of  the  muscle,  and  the 
latter  at  the  extremities.     Sometimes,  however,  they  are  in- 
termixed.    They  are  divided  into  voluntary  and  involuntary 
muscles. 

204.  The  voluntary  muscles  are  entirely  subject  to  the  will. 
Those  upon  which  the  fingers,  hands,  and  arms  depend  for  their 
motion,  belong  to  this  class.     Involuntary  muscles  are  not  sub- 
ject to  the  will,  such  as  those  of  the  stomach  and  intestines. 
The  muscles  of  respiration  are  said  to  have  a  mixed  motion. 
They  depend  partly  on  the  will  and  partly  on  their  own  inhe- 
rent force.     The  end  of  a  muscle  that  adheres  to  the  more 
fixed  part  of  a  bone,  is  called  its  origin,  and  that  which  adheres 
to  the  more  movable  part,  its  insertion. 

205.  Muscles  owe  their  motions  both  to  the  fibres  of  which 
they  are  composed,  and  to  the  nerves  of  volition.     The  names 
that  distinguish  the  muscles  are  founded  upon  their  size,  figure, 
situation,  use,  origin,  insertion,  and  arrangement  of  fibres.     If 
the  fibres  of  a  muscle  are  placed  parallel  to  each  other  in  a 
straight  direction,  the  muscle  is  called  rectilinear.     If  the  fibres 
cross  each  other,  they  constitute  a  compound  muscle.     If  they 
are  disposed  in  the  manner  of  rays,  a  radiated  muscle.     If 


MUSCLES  AND    JOINTS.  73 

placed    obliquely  with    respect  to  tlie   tendon,   a  pcnniform 
muscle. 

206.  Some  muscles  act  in  opposition  to  others ;  these  are 
called  antagonists.     Every  extensor  muscle  has  for  its  antago- 
nist a  flexor  muscle.     As,  for  instance,  one  set  of  muscles  shuts 
the  hand,  another  opens  it.     Those  muscles  that  concur  in  the 
same  action  are  called  conyeres. 

207.  The  bones  comprising  the  skeleton  are  united  either  by 
their  margins  or  their  extremities,  which  forms  the  joints.     They 
are  held  in  contact  by  peculiar  cords  so  disposed  as  to  render 
some  joints  nearly  or  wholly  immovable ;  while  to  others,  they 
allow  of  more  or  less  extension,  or  regulate  their  action  by  con- 
fining the  motion  within  fixed  directions.     Hence  it  is,  that 
anatomists  subdivide  the  articulations  or  joints  into  movable 
and   immovable.     The  movable    articulations    are  formed   by 
osseous  surfaces  encrusted  with  cartilages,  and  held  in  their 
places  by  ligaments.    Many  immovable  articulations  have  nei- 
ther ligaments  nor  cartilages. 

208.  Cartilages  are  white,  solid,  smooth  substances,  of  an 
elastic  nature  and  fibrous  texture,  between  the  hardness  of  bones 
and  ligaments.     Some  are  connected  with  the  bones,  and  serve 
to  cover  their  ends  intended  for  motion,  facilitate  their  articula- 
tions, and  unite  them  together.     Others  belong  to  the  softer 
parts  of  the  body,  and  serve  for  the  attachment  of  muscles. 
The  cartilages  encrusting  the  osseous  articulations  are  supple, 
elastic,  solid,  and   perfectly  smooth.     An   extremely  delicate 
membrane  invests  their  surfaces,  secreting  a  viscous  fluid,  like 
albumen  or  white  of  egg.     This  fluid  is  called  synovia,  or  joint- 
oil. 

209.  The  ligaments  serve  to  connect  the  bones  together,  and 
keep  them  in  their  places.    They  are  exceedingly  strong,  white 
cords,   inelastic,   and    inextensible,   flexible,    yet    unyielding. 
Their  fibres  have  the  lustre  of  mother  of  pearl,  and  they  differ 
from  the  cartilages  and  ^/i&ro-cartilages.     Those  belonging  to 
the  joints  are  of  a  tendinous  nature,  white,  inelastic,  strong, 
and  flexible.     They  are  distinguished  by  the  epithets,  round 

4 


74:  STUDY   OF  ART. 

and  bursal.     The  bursal  ligaments  surround  those  articulations 
that  have  a  free  motion. 

210.  Tendons,  muscles,  and  aponeuroses  contribute  still  fur- 
ther to  strengthen  certain  joints.     The  enlargement  of  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  long  bones  not  only  facilitates  their  motion,  but 
strengthens  the  power  of  the  joints.     By  all  these  means  the 
mobility  and  solidity  of  the  joints  is  admirably  secured. 

211.  The  form  of  the  bones  is  more  or  less  angular;  the 
tendons  are  straight,  and  the  muscles  are  circular  in  action  and 
elliptical  in  repose.     This  difference  between  bones,  tendons, 
and  muscles,  causes  variation  of  form ;  therefore  it  should  be 
observed  and  remembered. 

212.  The  first  muscle  in  the  back,  and  the  most  essential  to 
its  beauty,  both  in  the  male  and  female  figure,  is  the  trapezius. 
It  covers  all  the  back  and  neck,  quite  to  the  fore  part  of  the 
shoulder ;  the  two  portions  go  to  the  tips  of  the  shoulders,  and 
nearly  down  to  the  loins. 

213.  One  portion  on  each  side  is  implanted  into  one  third  of 
the  clavicle  nearest  the  shoulder,  and  into  the  tips  of  the  aero- 
mion.     This  portion  raises  the  scapula.     It  then  branches  round 
the  upper  angle  of  the  scapula,  and  adheres  to  its  termination. 
This  portion  moves  the  scapula  towards  the  vertebral  column ; 
it  then  branches  down  into  the  back  in  a  point,  completing  its 
lozenge  form. 

214.  The  drawing  of  the  back,  neck,  and  shoulders,  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  things,  as  well  as  the  most  beautiful  in  the 
human  form;  for  the  trapezius  is  not  only  important  exter- 
nally, but  its  form  is  so  varied  by  internal  construction  that  a 
perfect  understanding  of  it  is  essential  to  a  perfect  delineation. 

215.  The  levator  scapula  is  not  necessarily  visible.      The 
next  underneath  is  the  rhomboideus,  which  conies  from  the  spine, 
and  follows  the  scapula  the  whole  length  at  the  base.     These 
muscles  raise  the  scapula,  and  carry  it  backwards. 

216.  On  the  fore  part  of  the  breast,  lies  the  serratus  major 
anticus,  which  moves  the  scapula  forwards.     The  serratus  is 


MUSCLES  AND  JOINTS.  75 

most  important.  It  arises  by  distinct  teeth  from  all  the  true 
ribs,  and  three  of  the  false.  It  is  a  part  of  the  cushion  on 
which  the  scapula  moves,  and  goes  into  the  whole  base  with  the 
rhomboid.  In  violent  breathing,  in  collecting  the  breath,  and 
the  heaving  of  the  ribs  and  chest,  the  chief  action  of  this  muscle 
is  on  the  scapula  ;  indeed,  the  scapula  can  hardly  move  without 
the  serratus  being  in  action.  It  always  influences  the  shape, 
whether  in  action  or  repose;  but,  when  in  repose,  it  is  less 
visible,  and  then  it  should  not  be  distinctly  marked.  Thus,  the 
scapula,  moved  in  every  direction,  causes  all  the  variety  of 
shape  and  projection  exhibited  by  a  back  in  action ;  and  the 
great  principle,  "  that  the  form  of  every  part  varies  with  its 
action  or  repose,"  cannot  be  better  illustrated  than  by  the  va- 
rious movements  of  this  singular  bone. 

217.  The  great  and  important  muscle  by  which  the  arm  is 
moved  is  the  pectoralis  major.     It  forms  the  characteristic  of 
the  heroic  figure,  the  broad  and  manly  breast  which  it  covers, 
and  is  inserted  into  the  arm-bone. 

218.  The  latissimus  dorsi  is  the  broadest  muscle  of  the  back, 
and  of  the  whole  body.     It  is  inserted  in  the  arm-bone,  and  to- 
gether with  the  pectoralis  major,  forms  the  arm-pit.     It  has  its 
origin  in  the  lower  vertebra  of  the  loins  and  os  sacrum.     The 
action  of  these  two  muscles,  pectoral  and  latissimus,  is  most 
powerful.     The  pectoral  pulls  the  arm  forward,  and  the  latissi- 
mus brings  it  down ;  as,  for  instance,  in  cutting  with  a  sabre. 
When  the  arm  is  fixed  on  a  beam,  it  raises  the  body. 

219.  The  most  conspicuous  muscle  in  the  shoulder  is  the 
deltoides ;  one  portion  has  its  origin  in  the  clavicle,  to  pull 
forward ;  another,  from  the  acromion,  to  pull  upward ;  a  third, 
from  the  spine  of  the  scapula,  to  pull  backward.     This  arrange- 
ment comprises  the  various  portions  and  actions  of  this  beauti- 
ful muscle.  In  the  finest  forms,  the  insertion  of  the  deltoid  is  half 
way  down  the  arm-bone,  between  the  humerus  head  and  elbow. 

220.  The  coraco  brachialis  is  a  very  useful   muscle,   and, 
when  in  action,  is  always  seen  between  the  biceps  and  triceps 
inside.     It  is  inserted  in  the  arm-bone,  between  the  brachialis 


76  STUDY   OF  ART. 

and  third  head  of  the  triceps,  and  assists  in  throwing  out  the 
arm. 

221.  There  are  two  muscles  belonging  to  those  which  move 
the  arm  called  supra  spinatus  and  infra  spinatus ;  the  first 
arising  above  the  spine  of  the  scapula,  and  the  other  beneath  it. 
The  supra  spinatus  is  inserted  into  the  great  tuberosity  of  the 
arm-bone,  and  performs  the  same  motion  as  the  middle  part  of 
the  deltoid.     The  infra  spinatus  is  the  largest  of  the  two,  and 
has  its  origin  from  the  base  of  the  scapula,  below  the  spine,  and 
is  inserted  with  the  supra  spinatus.     Both  are  essential  to  the 
form  of  the  back;  though  the  first  is  underneath  the  spinal 
portion  of  the  trapezius,  it  affects  the  shape.     The  terres  minor 
is  never  seen ;  but  the  terres  major  is  always  visible,  or,  rather, 
its  effect  on  the  surface.     It  arises  from  the  angle  of  the  sca- 
pula, and  passes  under  the  head  of  the  triceps,  under  the  arm- 
bone,  turns  round,  and  is  inserted  in  the  ridge ;  it  goes  with  the 
latissimus  dorsi,  acts  with  it,  and  is  essential  to  a  fine  back. 

222.  These  complete  the  muscles  of  the  neck,  back,  shoulder- 
blade,  and  arm ;  and  no  artist,  whether  painter  or  sculptor,  can 
form  a  fine  back  who  does  not  thoroughly  understand  them.     I 
need  hardly  add  that  those  who  understand  their  position  and 
uses,  can  best  appreciate  a  finely  formed  figure,  either  in  nature 
or  art,  where  they  are  fully  developed  or  delineated. 

223.  To  recapitulate — 1st,  the  vertebra prominens;  2d,  branch 
of  trapezius,  along  the  spine  of  the  scapula  to  the  acromion, 
each  side  parting  round  the  vertebra  prominens,  and  twisting  a 
little,  as  the  occipital  portion  makes  a  turn  to  go  into  the  shoul- 
der-tips downwards ;  then,  3d,  comes  the  back  and  lower  part ; 
4th,  the  deltoid  and  its  three  portions ;  5th,  the  supra  spinatus, 
infra  and  terres  major ;  6th,  bit  of  rhomboid ;  then,  latissimus 
dorsi,  which  completes  this  portion  of  the  back  and  shoulders. 

224.  The  muscles  of  the  fore-arm  are  four :  the  Uceps  and 
brachialis,  for  bending ;  the  triceps  and  anconceus,  for  extending. 
The  Uceps  is  a  very  essential  muscle.     There  is  none,  in  the 
human  frame,  whose  form  is  more  affected  by  action  or  repose. 


MUSCLES  AND    JOINTS.  77 

Bend  the  arm,  and  it  contracts  like  a  ball ;  extend  the  arm,  and 
it  stretches  like  a  string.  It  has  its  origin  in  two  heads,  which, 
in  the  arms  of  strong  men,  are  quite  visible,  especially  in  pugi- 
lists, till  the  separation  gradually  unites  and  forms  but  one. 
The  biceps  is  inserted  into  the  round  tubercle  of  the  radius.  It 
bends  the  fore-arm,  and  assists  supination.  As  both  heads  are 
from  the  scapula,  it  assists  to  lift  the  arm. 

225.  Immediately  under  the  biceps,  the  brachialis  internus 
comes  down  each  side  the  deltoid,  about  two-thirds  the  humerus, 
and  goes  to  the  coronoid  process  of  the  ulna.    In  a  strong  man, 
it  is  always  well  developed  on  the  inside,  projecting  from  the 
edge  of  the  biceps. 

226.  Upon  the  back  part  of  the  arm,  three  muscles  are  des- 
cribed ;  viz. :  the  extensor  longus,  brevis,  and  brachialis  externus. 
John  Bell  describes  them  as  one  three-headed  muscle.     The 
longest  head  is  the  middle ;  it  has  its  origin  from  the  edge  of  the 
scapula,  under  the  neck,  and  a  little  way  from  the  origin  of  the 
long  head  of  the  biceps.     The  second  head  is  on  the  outside  of 
the  arm ;  it  comes  from  the  arm-bone,  under  the  tuber,  and  just 
below  the  insertion  of  the  terres  minor.     These  two  meet  in  the 
middle.     The  third  is  the  shortest  of  all,  and  originates  in  the 
inner  side  of  the  humerus,  under  the  insertion  of  the  terres 
major,  and  joins  the  second  head  about  the  middle.     All  the 
heads  are  implanted  by  a  strong  tendon  in  the  projecting  heel 
of  the  ulna,  the  olecranon,  by  which  projection  it  has  great 
power. 

227.  The  three  combined,  form  a  very  powerful  muscle,  and 
cover  with  beautiful  variety  the  whole  back  of  the  arm,  and 
their  various  muscular  and  tendinous  endings  produce  a  beauti- 
ful variety  of  forms,  both  in  action  and  repose,  which  must  be 
carefully  observed  in  moulding  or  drawing  the  arm. 

228.  The  anconceus  rises  from  the  ridge,  and  from  the  exter- 
nal condyle  of  the  humerus,  by  a  thick,  short  tendon,  and  is  in- 
serted into  the  ridge  of  the  ulna. 

229.  Besides  the  muscles,  there  are  various  sheets  of  tendi- 
nous  expansions,  which   spread   over  and   enclose   the   arm. 


78  STUDY   OF  ART. 

These  brace  down  the  muscles  when  in  action,  and,  by  resist- 
ance, serve  to  increase  their  power. 

230.  With  regard  to  the  motion  of  the  arm,  it  must  be  ob- 
served, that  the  muscles  on  the  back  and   neck  going  to  the 
scapula,  move  the  scapula  ;  those  on  the  scapula,  move  the  arm ; 
those  on  the  arm,  move  the  fore-arm ;  those  on  the  fore-arm, 
move  the  hand.  The  perfect  freedom  of  all  the  motions  of  the  scap- 
ula and  arm  is  one  of  the  great  characteristics  of  the  form  of  man. 

231.  The  freedom  of  the  arm  from  the  shoulder-joint,  re- 
quires and  possesses  a  gradation  of  power.   The  strongest  power 
being  placed  at  the  origin  of  the  motion  of  the  arm  ;  viz.,  at 
the  blade  and  back.     First,  the  muscles  that  move  the  blade 
are  more  powerful  than  those  that  move  the  arm ;  and  those  of 
the  arm,  than  those  of  the  fore-arm ;  and  those  of  the  fore-arm 
than  those  of  the  hand.     This  is  a  beautiful  gradation  of  power, 
and  is  a  peculiarly  human  characteristic. 

232.  In  forming  the  arm,  one  of  the  chief  difficulties  is  in 
managing  the  stringy  muscles  of  the  fore-arm.     The  motions  to 
be  performed  are  three ;  to  roll  the  hand ;  to  bend  the  wrist ; 
to  bend  the  fingers.     The  turning  of  the  hand  is  performed  by 
rolling  the  radius  on  the  ulna.     Turning  it  down  is  called  pro- 
nation,  and  turning  it  up  is  called  supination.     Then  there  are 
two  benders,  one  superficial  and  the  other  deep.     There  are 
two  flexors  of  the  wrist;  one  called  of  the  radius,  the  other  of 
the  ulna  ;  one  going  along  the  radius,  the  other  along  the  ulna. 
There  are  also  two  pronators,  one  round  and  the  other  square. 

233.  All  the  muscles  of  the  fore-arm  rise  from  two  points, 
inner  or  outer  condyle ;  the  inner  condyle  is  the  longest  and 
gives  more  power — more  being  required  for  grasping  than  ex- 
tending ;  therefore  all  the  muscles  that  bend  the  fingers,  and 
turn  the  palm  down,  come  from  this  condyle.     The  exterior 
condyle  is  shorter,  less  power  being  required  merely  to  open 
the  fingers.     All  the  extensors  and  supinators  come  from  the 
outer  condyle,  and  all  the  pronators  come  from  the  inner. 

234.  Thearm,when  well  formed,  tapers  from  the  shoulder,  the 
deltoid  being  the  greatest  power ;  reverse  this,  let  the  fore-arm 


MUSCLES  AND  JOINTS.  79 

and  hand  be  the  longest  and  largest,  it  then  has  the  quadruped 
or  animal  form. 

235.  Of  the  numerous  articulations  of  the  head,  one  only 
requires  the  attention  of  the  artist,  and  that  is,  the  articulation 
of  the  lower  jaw  with  the  temporal  bone.     The  movements  of 
the  lower  jaw,  by  the  aid  of  its  appropriate  ligaments  and 
muscles,  are  down  and  up,  and  from  side  to  side.     It  can  also 
be  made  to  slide  forward  and  back.     The  strength  of  the  arti- 
culation depends    mainly  on  its  muscles  and  their  tendinous 
attachments. 

236.  The  head  articulates  with  the  atlas  and  the  first  cervical 
vertebra.   At  the  sides  of  the  great  occipital  foramen,  are  two  con- 
dyles,  ovoid  and  convex  in  form.  These  condyles  are  received  into 
corresponding  concave  facettes  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  atlas. 
Short  and  powerful  ligaments  connect  the  vertebra  firmly  to  the 
cranium,  so  that  all  the  movements  of  the  head  are  transmitted 
securely  to  the  atlas. 

237.  The  two  first   cervical  vertebrce  articulate  with   each 
other.     On  the  lower  surface  of  the  atlas  will  be  found  two 
slightly  concave  articular  facettes.     These  rest  on  corresponding 
slightly  convex  surfaces  of  the  second  vertebra  or  axis.   Another 
small  ov&lfacette  will  be  found  on  the  inner  side  of  the  anterior 
arch  of  the  atlas.     On  this  plays  a  corresponding  facette  of  the 
odontoid  process  of  the  axis.     A  transverse  ligament  converts 
the  anterior  part  of  the  hollow  of  the  atlas  into  a  ring  in  which 
is  received  the  odontoid  process,  and  from  which  it  cannot  escape ; 
the  summit  of  the  odontoid  process  being  enlarged,  and  the 
ligament  being  of  great  strength.    Thus,  the  atlas  and  the  head, 
which  always  move  together  in  semi-circular  motions,  play  on 
the  odontoid  process  as  on  a  pivot,  which  it  really  is.     Fibrous 
capsules  enclose   the  corresponding   articular  surfaces  of  the 
atlas  and  axis,  strengthening,  but  at  the  same  time,  limiting  and 
regulating  the  action  of  these  joints.     Two  short,  but  strong 
ligaments,  connect  the  summit  and  sides  of  the  odontoid  process 
to  the  occipital  bone. 


80  STUDY   OF   AET. 

238.  The  movements  of  the  head  are  consequently  universal  so 
far  as  they  go.     It  moves  forward  and  backward  upon  the  atlas. 
With  the  atlas,  it  moves  through  a  quarter  of  a  circle  to  the 
left,  and  through  the  same  extent  to  the  right,  on  the  axis  or 
second  vertebra.      But  if  the  movements  of  rotation  extend 
farther  than  this,  then  the  whole  vertebral  column  and  even  the 
hip-joint  contribute  to  the  motion.    The  similarity  and  analogy 
existing  in  the  rest  of  the  vertebrae  renders  it  unnecessary  to 
describe   them   in   detail.      They   articulate  with   each   other 
and  with  the  ribs,  and  the  spinous  processes  are  connected  by 
various  ligaments.      From  its   mechanism  and   structural   ar- 
rangement, the  vertebral  column  has  the  power  of  moving  in 
nearly  all  directions,  rotating  also  upon  its  axis. 

239.  In  the  human  form,  the  motion  of  the  scapula,  arm, 
fore-arm,  and  hand,  is  perfect :  not  so  in  the  quadruped.     One 
of  the  great  distinctions  in  form  is  the  power  that  man  has  of 
making  a  free  circle  with  his  arm ;  the  shoulder-joint  being  the 
centre  of  motion. 

240.  Man  can  turn  his  wrist  down ;  his  elbow  is  a  perfect 
hinge  ;  the  shoulder-joint  is  a  ball  and  socket ;  and  to  complete 
all  these,  the  scapula,  the  centre  of  these  motions,  is  movable. 
The  moment  the  arm-bone  moves  above  the  horizontal  position, 
the  acromion  process  of  the  scapula  stops  it,  and  the  scapula 
rolls  on  the  trunk  before  it  can  go  any  higher.     And  here  it  is 
necessary  to  remember,  that  the  muscles  that  move  the  scapula, 
come  from  the  breast  to  move  it  forwards ;  from  the  neck  to 
move  it  upwards,  from  the  spine  to  move  it  backwards ;  and, 
from  the  side,  that  is,  from  the  ribs,  to  move  it  downwards. 

241.  The  arm  when  farthest  removed  from  its  natural  pos- 
ture, exerts  the  greatest  force  to  recover  its  original  station. 
Thus  in  throwing  a  dart  or  stone,  the  arm  is  drawn  back  to 
such  a  distance  from  the  body  as  to  acquire  a  rapid  motion  in 
returning  to  its  natural  posture,  and  the  force  is  in  proportion 
to  the  distance  to  which  the  arm  is  carried  back. 

242.  The  fore-arm  can  perform  but  two  movements  as  re- 


MUSCLES  AND  JOINTS.  81 

gards  the  arm,  the  one  forwards,  and  the  other  backwards.  When 
the  fore-arm  is  naturally  bent  on  the  arm,  the  former  is  not  par- 
.allel  to  the  latter.  To  enable  the  fore-arm  to  meet  the  arm,  a 
movement  of  rotation  must  be  performed  by  the  humerus,  suf- 
ficient to  carry  the  radius  and  ulna  in  an  outward  direction.  In 
regard  to  the  flexion  of  the  fore-arm,  it  is  impossible  to  bring 
the  shoulder  and  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  fore-arm  in  con- 
tact. The  obliquity  of  the  elbow  joint  causes  the  fore-arm  to 
approach  the  front  of  the  body. 

243.  The  particular  disposition  of  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm 
favor  their  rotation.     A  cavity  hollowed  out  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  articular  notch  of  the  ulna,  receives  the  side  of  the  head 
of  the  radius;  whilst  inferiorly,  it  is  the  radius  which  has  a 
small,  articular  facette  corresponding  to  the  head  of  the  ulna  on 
which  it  glides.     The  bones  of  the  fore-arm  move  on  each  oth- 
er, either  forward  or  backward.     The  first  of  these  is  called 
pronation,  the  second,  supination.     In  order  to  effect  the  move- 
ment of  pronation,  the  head  of  the  radius  must  turn  in  the  ring 
formed  by  the  annular  ligament,  and  the  notch  of  the  ulna. 
The  contrary  movement  takes  place  during  supination. 

244.  Three  bones  of  the  carpus  or  wrist,  articulate  with  the 
bones  of  the  fore-arm ;  the  two  first  with  the  radius,  and  the 
last  with  the  ulna.     Ligaments  placed  on  all  sides  of  the  joint, 
maintain  these  bones  in  their  position,  and  at  the  same  time 
permit  extensive  movements. 

245.  The  carpus  plays  an  important  part  in  the  movements 
of  the  wrist-joint;  all  the  small  bones,  articulated  with  each 
other,  and  at  the  same  time  slightly  movable,  form  a  medium 
of  transition  between  the  arm  and  fore-arm ;  they  increase  the 
extent  of  flexion  and  extension  at  the  wrist-joint,  adding  at 
once  to  the  grace  and  strength  of  its  movements. 

246.  The  dimensions  of  the  wrist  are  changed  by  the  open- 
ing and  shutting  of  the  hand.     When  the  hand  is  shut,  it  be- 
comes less  than  when  it  is  open.     The  arm,  on  the  contrary, 
becomes  larger  when  the  hand  is  shut,  and  less  when  it  is  open ; 

4* 


82  STUDY  OF   ART. 

the  reason  of  this  is,  that  in  opening  the  hand,  the  muscles  are 
extended ;  and  when  shut,  they  are  contracted  in  length,  and 
thereby  increase  the  size  of  the  fore-arm.  The  fingers,  as  well 
as  the  toes,  partake  of  the  customary  changes  of  enlarging  when 
the  joints  are  bent,  and  decreasing  when  they  are  extended. 

247.  No  rules  can  be  given  for  the  depression  or  swelling  of 
the  muscles,  except  this  general  one,  that  a  muscle,  when  in  a 
state   of  action,  and  consequently  contracted  in  its  length,  is 
increased  in  bulk,  and  thereby  increases  the  surrounding  parts. 
When  in  a  state  of  rest,  and  extended  to  its  full  length,  its  bulk 
and  the  surrounding  parts  are  diminished.     This  is  the  neces- 
sary consequence  of  the  effect  of  muscular  action  so  conspic- 
uous in  the  arm,  which,  when  extended,  is  nearly  an  eighth 
part  of  its  circumference  less  than  when  bent  at  the  elbow,  and 
is  larger  or  smaller  in  proportion  as  the  angle  made  by  bend- 
ing is  more  or  less  acute. 

248.  The  articulations  of  the  hand  are  numerous.     The  first 
metacarpal  bone  articulates  with  the  trapezium.  It  may  be  made 
to  move  in  all  directions.     It  also  determines  the  motion  of  the 
thumb  in  relation  to  the  other  fingers.     The  metacarpal  bones 
of  the   fingers  are   nearly  immovable,   being  thoroughly  con- 
nected by  ligaments.     The  forms  of  the  articular  surfaces  of 
the  phalanges,  and  the  ligaments  connecting  them,  secure  the 
requisite  strength  and  mobility.     The  first  phalanges  rotate  on 
the  metacarpal  bones,  but  the  others  move  only  in  extension  and 
flexion.     These  latter  movements  are  checked  or  limited  by  the 
disposition  of  the  articular  surfaces  and  by  the  tension  of  the 
ligaments. 

249.  The  head  of  the  femur,  or  thigh  bone,  is  received  into 
the  cotyloid  cavity;  a  ^ro-cartilaginous  ring,  attached  to  the 
border  of  the  cavity,  increases  its  depth,  and  serves  to  maintain 
the  head  of  the  femur  in  its  place.   The  round  ligament  unites  the 
head  of  the  femur  to  the  cotyloid  cavity.     A  fibrous  capsule, 
attached  on  the  one  hand  around  the  cotyloid  cavity,  and  on  the 
other  to  the  base  of  the  neck  of  the  femur,  envelopes  the  joint 


MUSCLES   AND    JOINTS.  83 

• 

on  all  sides.  The  ligamentary  apparatus  of  the  joint,  strong 
though  it  be,  is  wholly  unequal  to  its  protection  during  violent 
action ;  its  safety  depends  more  on  the  vast  strength  of  the  sur- 
rounding muscles  and  their  tendons.  The  ball  and  socket  char- 
acter of  the  hip-joint  admits  of  motion  in  nearly  all  directions. 
Its  movements  are  limited  upwards  by  the  brim  of  the  acetabulumy 
and  backwards,  or  in  extension,  by  the  direction  of  the  ligaments. 

250.  The  muscles  moving  the  thigh-bone,  arise  all  from  the 
pelvis  and  trunk.     Those  moving  the  leg,  come  from  the  thigh. 
Those  moving  the  feet  and  toes,  come  from  the  leg.     In  walk- 
ing, when  the  leg  is  on  the  ground,  resting  for  the  advance  of 
the  other  foot,  the  muscles  of  the  leg  being  fixed,  roll  the  pelvis 
and  trunk  upon  the  limb. 

251.  The  knee  is  seldom  properly  defined.     The  bone  con- 
struction is  :  first,  the  condyles  ;  then,  the  groove  in  front ;  then, 
the  pan-bone  and  hollows ;  the  head  and  bump  of  the  tibia  and 
fibula,  which  are  the  leading  bone-guiding  points.     The  pan- 
bone  is,  in  reality,  a  lever,  or  pulley.     It  is  of  an  oval  form, 
with  the  smaller  part  downwards.    At  its  base  are  attached  the 
four  great  extensor  muscles  of  the  leg.     To  the  summit,  or 
apex,  is  attached  the  ligament  of  the  patella.     It  is  so  formed 
as  to  fit  the  trochlea  of  the  femur,  on  which  it  plays  during  the 
flexion  and  extension  of  the  leg  on  the  thigh.     The  projection 
of  this  bone  on  the  knee,  removes  the  centre  of  motion,  and 
acting  as  a  lever,  by  resisting  the  action  of  the  extensor  muscles 
of  the  leg,  increase  their  power,  and  this,  in  proportion  to  its 
breadth  and  its  resistance.     A  broad  and  powerful  pan-bone  is 
an  essential  characteristic  of  a  standard  form  for  man.     When 
the  knee  is  bent,  the  pan-bone  sinks  into  the  hollow ;  when  it  is 
extended,  the  pan  rises,  and  increases  the  mechanical  power, 
just  in  proportion  as  the  muscles  lose  their  force. 

252.  The  flexion  of  the  leg  on  the  thigh  is  limited  by  the 
two  coming  in  contact.     A  careful  observation  of  the  sliding 
of  the  tibia  over  the  articular  surfaces  of  the  femoral  condyles 
during  flexion  of  the  leg,  will  enable  the  artist  to  understand 


84  STUDY  OF  ART. 

the  relative  changes  in  the  position  of  the  bones.  In  passive 
extension,  the  rotula  is  free  and  movable  in  all  directions,  limit- 
ed, however,  within  due  bounds  by  its  ligaments,  so  that,  in 
point  of  fact,  the  rotula  absolutely  never  changes  its  relation  to 
the  tibia  beyond  a  limit  regulated  by  the  length  of  the  rotulian 
ligament. 

253.  In  active  extension  of  the  leg,  that  is,  when  the  extensor 
muscles  are  in  full  play,  the  patella,  drawn  upward,  slides  over 
the  condyles  and  pulley  of  the  femur ;  in  flexion  of  the  leg,  it 
performs  the  same  action  inversely ;  in  the  meantime,  its  abso- 
lute relation  to  the  tibia  is  not  altered  in  either  case. 

254.  The  movements  of  the  foot  take  place  chiefly  in  the  ar- 
ticulation of  the  astralagus  and  calcaneum,  and  in  those  of  the 
first  and  second  rows  of  the  tarsal  bones. 

255.  Numerous  ligaments  strengthen  all  these  joints,  whilst 
the  general  mobility  of  the  foot  is  increased  by  the  sum  of  all 
the  lesser  movements,  originating  in  the  other  articulations  of  the 
tarsal  bones. 

256.  The  metatarsal  bones  scarcely  move  on  the  tarsal;  the 
first  are  as  fixed  as  the  others. 

257.  The  phalanges  of  the  toes  resemble,  in  their  movements, 
those  of  the  fingers,  but  they  move  much  less  freely.     Their 
most  marked  movement  is  extension. 

258.  In  studying  the  articulations  of  the  figure,  the  influence 
of  the  surrounding  tendons,  aponeuroses  and  muscles,  in  pro- 
tecting, strengthening  and  limiting  their  movements,  must  never 
be  lost  sight  of.    In  some  figures,  these  forms  are  very  distinctly 
marked.     In  others,  they  are  scarcely  visible.     As  a  general 
rule,  they  are  much  less  distinct  than  is  usually  supposed,  even 
when  the  muscular  system  is  powerfully  developed.     To  give 
prominence  to  the  muscles,  action  is  necessary ;  yet*,  ordinary 
movements  slightly  affect  the  exterior.     Bold  reliefs  and  deep 
depressions  display  themselves  only  during  energetic  efforts. 

259.  Although,  for  example,  all  the  muscular  powers  con- 
tribute to  the  support  of  the  body  when  standing,  and  every 


MUSCLES  AND   JOINTS.  85 

• 

individual  movement,  however  gentle,  requires  the  combined 
action  of  a  number  of  muscles,  the  arrangement  of  the  forces  and 
levers  is  so  perfect,  the  resistance  yields  so  punctually  to  the 
slightest  contraction  of  these  muscular  powers,  that  their  change 
is  effected  without  requiring  any  great  muscular  effort.  In  de- 
fining these  changes,  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  exaggeration.  No- 
thing is  more  quiet  and  simple,  and  nothing  shows  a  grander 
design,  than  the  human  figure,  and  its  admirable  harmony  can- 
not be  overlooked.  Strong  muscular  development,  a  capacious 
chest  and  massive  shoulders,  indicate  the  strength  of  man,  and 
the  labor  for  which  he  is  fitted.  On  the  contrary,  grace  and 
delicacy  mark  the  beauty  of  form  in  woman,  and  the  different 
position  which  she  is  designed  to  fill,  (g) 


CHAPTER  V. 

GRAVITY    OF    THE    FIGURE. 

260.  WHEN  a  figure  is  standing  on  a  solid  surface,  either  in 
an  upright  or  an  inclined  position,  the  spot  that  bears  the  weight, 
is  called  the  base  of  sustentation.     The  weight  may  be  sus- 
tained by  one  foot,  or  both ;  but,  the  figure  will  not  be  in  repose, 
unless  the  parts  of  the  body  are  in  equilibrium  around  the 
centre  of  gravity ;  or,  in  other  words,  around  the  line  exactly 
perpendicular  to  the  base  of  sustentation. 

261.  Motion  is  created  by  the  loss  of  this  due  equipoise. 
That  is,  by  an  inequality  of  weight.     Nothing  can  move  of 
itself  without  losing  its  centre  of  gravity ;  and  the  farther  that 
is  removed  the  quicker  and  stronger  will  be  the  motion  : — As, 
for  instance,  in  running.     With  a  slow  step,  the  figure  will  re- 
main nearly  upright. 

262.  The  centre  of  gravity  may  be  supported  or  suspended; 
ordinary  standing,  (station)   is  an    example   of  the  first;  the 
second  occurs  in  suspension  by  the  arms. 

263.  To  remain  standing,  or  immovable,  in  any  position,  the 
vertical  line,  regulated  by  the  centre  of  gravity,  must  always 
fall  on  the  space  covered  by  the  feet,  so  that  all  parts  of  the 
body  may  materially  counterbalance  each  other. 

264.  When  the  line  of  gravity  falls  beyond  the  base  of  sus- 
tentation, the  body  inclines,  and  must  of  necessity  fall,  unless  its 
equilibrium  is  instantly  restored  by  muscular  efforts. 

265.  By  separating  the  feet  laterally,  the  base  of  sustenta- 
tion is  enlarged  in  that  sense ;  but,  when  in  this  position,  a 


GRAVITY  OF  THE    FIGURE.  87 

feeble  impulse  will  overthrow  the  person.     It  is  quite  the  re- 
VITSO  when  the  feet  are  placed  one  before  the  other. 

266.  To  the  gravity  of  the  figure  the  foot  is  most  essential. 
From  its  peculiar  construction,  it  admits  of  every  possible  variety 
of  motion ;  and,  when  not  artificially  cramped,  the  greatest  pos- 
sible freedom  of  action.     Being  placed  at  right  angles  with  the 
leg,  it  serves  as  a  base  of  support  for  the  weight  of  the  figure. 
A  man  with  a  wooden  leg  must  have  his  crutch ;  or,  if  an  arti- 
ficial  one,  he   finds   a  cane,  or  third  foot,  indispensable.     A 
person  with  short  feet  will  necessarily  step  quick  and  short.    If 
the  feet  are  not  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  figure,  there 
can  be  no  grace  of  motion.     Venus,  the  goddess  of  grace  as 
well  as  of  beauty,  is  represented  by  the  ancient  artists  as  having 
feet  a  little  larger  than  the  natural  standard  of  proportion. 

267.  The  balance  or  equipoise  in  the  human  body  is  of  two 
sorts ;  viz.,  simple  and  complex.     Simple,  when  a  man  stands 
upon  his  feet  .without  motion.     If  in  this  position  he  extends 
his  arms  at  different  distances,  or  stoops,  he  changes  his  entire 
form  in  relation  to  this  upright  line.     For  the  centre  of  gravity 
will  always  be  on  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  centre  of  the  foot 
that  supports  the  weight  of  his  body.     If  he  rests  equally  upon 
both  feet,  then  the  middle  of  his  chest  will  be  perpendicular  to 
the  middle  of  the  line  which  measures  the  space  between  his 
feet. 

268.  The  complex-balance  is  occasioned  by  a  man's  carrying 
a  weight  not  his  own,  and  which  he  bears  by  different  motions ; 
as  in  the  figure  of  Hercules  stifling  Antaeus,  by  pressing  him 
against  his  breast  with  his  arms,  after  having  lifted  him  from 
the  ground.     He  throws  as  much  of  his  own  weight  behind 
the  central  line,  as  the  weight  of  Anteus  adds  before.     A  man 
carrying  a  load  before  him,  will  bend  a  little  backwards,  which 
has  the  effect  of  a  balancing  weight,  and  thus  he  preserves  his 
centre  of  gravity. 

269.  Upon  every  change  of  motion  or  attitude  of  the  body  a 
great  variation  is  observable.     For  instance,  in  a  figure  stand- 
ing perfectly  still,  resting  equally  on  both  feet,  each  leg  sustains 


88  STUDY  OF  ART. 

an  equal  weight,  and  the  pit  between  the  clavicle  hangs  in  a 
perpendicular  line  which  rises  from  between  the  feet.  If  the 
figure  extends  one  arm,  the  pit  recedes  towards  the  other  side, 
or  if  he  moves  his  leg  only,  the  pit  is  also  moved.  By  the 
extension  of  his  arm,  the  weight  of  his  hand,  together  with  that 
of  his  arm,  acts  like  a  lever,  and  thereby  alters  his  centre  of 
gravity.  To  prevent  his  falling,  this  weight  must  be  counter- 
poised ;  therefore,  he  inclines  his  shoulder  to  the  contrary  side. 
This  inclination  of  the  shoulder  is  observable  chiefly  in  the 
hips.  If  a  ten  pound  weight  is  placed  in  the  extended  hand, 
the  effort  to  obtain  an  equilibrium  is  still  more  apparent.  If 
he  receives  the  weight  of  twenty  pounds  in  the  same  hand,  it  is 
with  difficulty  that  he  decreases  the  quantity  of  weight  on  the 
loaded  side  of  his  body.  For  the  same  reason,  a  man  in  danger 
of  falling  on  one  side,  always  inclines  his  body  to  the  opposite 
side.  In  other  words,  he  moves  the  centre  of  gravity. 

270.  When  a  person  from  a  state  of  rest  proceeds  to  walk, 
he,  in  a  similar  manner,  protrudes  the  centre  of  gravity  for- 
wards, and  that  in  proportion  to  the  briskness  of  his  pace.     In 
a  person  walking  leisurely,  this  is  scarcely  perceivable ;  but  in 
one  running  swiftly,  it  becomes  very  apparent ;  his  head  and 
shoulders  being  in  advance  of  the  foot  which  springs  from  the 
ground.     If  he  runs  against  a  strong  wind,  in  order  to  over- 
come its  resistance,  he  throws  himself  still  more  forward,  so 
that  if  his  weight  is  not  duly  disposed  upon  the  centre  of  sup- 
port, should  the  wind  stop  suddenly,  he  would  inevitably  fall 
forwards.     In  walking,  the  centre  of  gravity  is  over  the  foot 
that  rests  upon  the  ground. 

271.  In  endeavoring  to  leap,  a  man  bends  his  body  to  acquire 
a  spring,  then  quickly  extends  the  junctures  of  the  thighs,  knees, 
and  feet ;  by  this  extension,  the  body  describes  an  oblique  line 
inclining  forwards,  and  rising  upwards.     The  motion  directed 
forwards,  carries  the  body  in  that  direction,  and  the  motion  in- 
tended upwards,  elevates  it.     These  conjoined  motions  enable 
the  body  to  describe  a  large  arch,  which  is  the  direction  de- 
scribed in  jumping. 


GRAVITY   OF    THE    FIGURE.  89 

272.  The  attitudes  of  figures   should   always   indicate   the 
degree  of  strength  which  they  may  rationally  be  supposed  to 
employ  in  their  respective  actions.    When  a  man  lifts  a  weight, 
his  body  may  be  considered  as  the  machine ;  his  legs,  as  the 
prop,  or  support ;  and  the  centre  of  gravity,  his  power.     The 
burden  he  is  lifting  is  the  weight,  or  resistance,  to  be  overcome, 
to  accomplish  which,  he  must  throw  more  than  an  equal  weight 
on  the  opposite  side.     A  man  lifting  a  stick,  or  other  equally 
light  substance,  does  not  exert  a  force  equal  to  one  who  is  rais- 
ing a  beam.     A  person  intending  to  strike  a  violent  blow,  first 
averts  himself  from  the  object  of  his  attack ;  then,  collecting  all 
his  force,  he  discharges  it  with  equal  velocity,  compounded  of  the 
motion  of  his  arm,  and  of  the  weight  of  the  weapon  with  which 
he  strikes.     If  he  is  tearing  anything  out  of  the  earth,  he  raises 
the  leg  opposite  the  arm  wherewith  he  acts,  and  bends  the 
knee.     By  these  means,  he  balances  himself  on  the  other  leg, 
and  retires  backwards. 

273.  To  represent  a  man  removing  a  weight,  the  various 
motions  must  be  considered ;  viz. :  either  a  simple  motion  by 
bending  himself  to  raise  the  weight,  or  when  he  drags  the 
weight  after  him,  or  pushes  it  before  him,  or  pulls  it  down  with 
a  rope  passing  through  a  pulley.     The  weight  of  the  man's 
body  pulls  the  more  in  proportion  as  the  centre  of  his  gravity  is 
removed  from  the  centre  of  his  support.    To  this  must  be  added 
the  effort  made  by  the  legs  and  back,  when  they  are  bent,  to 
return  to  their  natural  straight  position. 

274.  In  sitting,  a  large  portion  of  the  muscular  system  re- 
mains relaxed,  and  is,  therefore,  a  position  of  repose.     In  rest- 
ing on  the  knees,  the  base  of  sustentation  is  much  narrower 
than  in  sitting;  hence,  to  avoid  the  fatigue  attending  it,  the 
body  is  thrown  backwards,  that  the  line  of  gravity  may  pass 
through  the  limbs  nearer  to  the  feet.     By  this  change,  the  base 
of  sustentation  is  much  enlarged. 

275.  The  various  attitudes  of  the  body,  and  the  changes  pro- 
duced by  them,  must  be  carefully  observed.     When  one  side 
bends  in,  the  other  has  a  corresponding  projection.     If  the 


90  STUDY  OF  ART. 

figure  stands  on  tiptoe,  the  ball  of  the  great  toe  belonging  to  the 
foot  that  supports  the  weight  of  the  body  is  then  the  base  of 
sustentation,  and  the  weight  must  be  balanced  around  it. 
Wrestlers  and  rope-dancers  practically  understand  these  effects 
and  their  causes,  and  much  may  be  learned  by  carefully  ob- 
serving their  motions. 

276.  Compare  the  loaded  carriage,  and  the  danger  it  runs  of 
being  overturned  when  passing  over  uneven  ground,  with  the 
movements  of  man  similarly  situated,  and  observe  how  quickly 
he,  or  any  other  animal,  restores  the  equilibrium  by  balancing 
the  weight  around  the  centre  of  gravity. 

277.  Persons   carrying  a  weight   before   them,  assume  an 
upright  attitude,  or  incline  backwards.     The  porter  carrying  a 
load  on  his  back,  adopts  precisely  the  reverse  position. 

278.  The  position  of  the  shoulders,  when  the  body  is  in  mo- 
tion, must  also  be  observed.     In  walking,  all  bipeds  lower  the 
part  over  the  foot  that  is  raised  more  than  over  that  resting  on 
the  ground,  and  the  highest  parts  do  just  the  contrary.     This  is 
observed  in  the  hips  and  shoulders  of  a  man  walking,  when  the 
level  is  not  as  well  preserved  as  in  running.     But,  whether  a 
man  moves  slowly  or  quickly,  the  parts  above  the  leg  which 
sustains  the  weight  will  always  be  lower  than  the  others  on  the 
opposite  side.     If  the  figure  rests  upon  one  foot,  the  shoulder 
on  that  side  will  be  lower  than  the  other,  and  the  pit  of  the  neck 
will  fall  perpendicularly  over  the  middle  of  the  leg  which  sup- 
ports the  body. 

279.  The  means  by  which  these  varying  results  are  pro- 
duced, are  the  muscles  and  their  tendons,  the  ligaments  and  the 
aponeuroses.     Muscular  contraction,  under  the  influence  of  the 
will  and  other  agents,  acting  with  consciousness  or  without,  is 
the  mainspring  of  all  these  movements.     The  tendons  connect 
the  muscles  with  the  bones,  or  passive  levers  of  locomotion. 
Whilst  acting,  the  muscular  fibre  contracts  or  shortens  itself, 
swells,  and  becomes  extremely  hard.     All  muscles  have  their 
antagonists ;  when  both  act  together  with  equal  strength,  the 


GRAVITY   OF  THE   FIGURE.  91 

part  remains  immovable,  or  moves  in  the  diagonal  of  the  acting 
forces. 

280.  For  the  beautiful  undulation  of  form  resulting  from  mo- 
tion, whether  the  attitude  is  transient  or  stationary,  no  rules 
can  be  laid  down  ;  and  nothing  but  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
figure  and  its  parts,  of  the  position  and  action  of  the  muscles, 
and  the  formation  of  the  joints,  can  enable  the  artist  to  de- 
lineate the  ever-changing  appearance  of  a  being  so  complicated 
in  structure,  and  yet  so  simple  in  form. 

281.  Few  figures  are  represented  as  well  seated,  owing  gene- 
rally to  an  inattention  to  the  .difference  in  the  length  of  the 
body  when  seated  and  when  standing.     In  an  upright  position, 
the  body  always  appears  the  longest,  and,  if  represented  in  the 
same  way  when  seated,  it  cannot  be  naturally  placed.     The 
figure  then  has  the  effect  of  sliding  down. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

DRAWING    OF    THE    FIGURE. 

282.  AMONG  the  fine  arts,  painting  takes  the  third  rank. 
Yet,  no  one  of  them  requires  the  acquisition  of  so  much  scienti- 
fic knowledge.     The  painter  must  first  understand  the  science 
of  anatomy,  or  he  cannot  represent  his  forms  correctly  ; — the 
science  of  optics,,  on  which  depends  his  light  and  shade,  perspec- 
tive and    color — the    science  of    mathematics,   or  he  cannot 
apply  these  laws — the  science  of  chemistry,  that  he  may  know 
the  nature  of  his  colors.     He  must  also  understand  the  laws  of 
gravity — the  laws  of  harmony  and  beauty — the  laws  of  ex- 
pression, both  in  countenance  and  attitude;  and,  finally,  the 
laws  of  the  human  mind,  to  which  his  work  is  addressed.     In 
addition  to  these  specific  acquirements,  he  must  have  an  ex- 
tensive general  knowledge,  and  a  skill  of  hand  acquired  only  by 
years  of  practice.     He  may  be  master  of  all  the  sciences,  and 
yet,  without  this  last  accomplishment,  he  cannot  even  copy  a 
picture — much  less  make  an  original  design. 

283.  By  correct  drawing,  is  meant  a  distinct  delineation  of 
form  according  to  its  construction  and  proportion.     Mere  sketch- 
ing, with  which  many  amuse  themselves,  amounts  to  nothing. 
A  student  who  wishes  to  attain  the  excellence  of  a  skilful  ar- 
tist, must  work  according  to  rule ;  and  the  first  step  towards 
excellence  is  to  acquire  an  accurate  knowledge  of  form ;  and 
the  next,  the  ability  to  draw  a  correct  outline.     Fuseli  defines 
outline  as  that  which  traces  the  circumference  of  an  object;  and 
adds  :  "  A  correct  outline  may  excite  pleasure  without  coloring, 


DRAWING   OF  THE   FIGURE.  93 

but  no  coloring  can  afford  equal  satisfaction  to  a  judicious  eye 
if  the  outline  is  incorrect ;  for  no  coloring,  no  composition  can 
merit  praise  where  the  outline  is  defective."  This  is  a  standard 
rule,  the  observance  of  which  is  too  much  neglected.  Many 
people  have  the  very  erroneous  idea  that,  to  genius,  rules  are 
superfluous,  and  even  some  painters  work  under  this  error. 
All  artists  who  have  attained  distinction,  however  much  they 
may  differ  on  other  points,  agree  upon  this  one  :  the  importance 
of  correct  drawing. 

284.  On  this  subject,  Barry  says :  "  Drawing  is  the  necessary 
foundation  of  painting ;  for,  without  correct  drawing,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  obtain  the  true  representations  of  objects,  the  propor- 
tions of  figures,  or  a  variety  of  action,  or  those  visible  fluctua- 
tions in  a  figure  which  result  from  the  wonderful  combinations 
of  muscles,  tendons  and  bones,  by  which  the  animal  functions 
are  performed,  exhibiting  in  the  several  limbs  and  parts  the 
exact  degree  of  effort,  proportioned  to  the  action  and  the  occa- 
sion, and  by  which  the  inclinations  and  emotions  of  the  soul  are 
visibly  imprinted  in  the  countenance  and  gesture." 

285.  With  the  true  artist,  the  first  and  last  great  subject  of 
study  is  the  drawing  of  the  human  figure,  carefully  learning  the 
form  and  proportion  of  the  various  parts,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  brought  into  action.     No  one  can  make  himself 
master  of  it,  without  acquiring  an  accuracy  of  eye,  and  a  skill 
of  hand,  that  make  the  delineation  of  other  subjects  a  mere 
pastime. 

286.  Haydon  says  :  "  Each  particular  passion,  or  action,  will 
excite  a  given  number  of  muscles,  none  more  nor  less  than  re- 
quisite.    The  rest  will  remain  quiet.     The  bones,  the  things 
moved,  and  the  muscles,  the  things  moving,  are  all  covered  by 
skin  ;  and  the  mechanism  of  art  is  to  express  the  passion,  or  in- 
tention, and  its  consequences,  by  representing  the  muscles  that 
are,  and  those  that  are  not  influenced,  giving  their  true  effect 
upon  the  surface  that  covers  them.    When  the  mind  is  thorough- 
ly informed  of  the  means  beneath  the  skin,  the  eye  instantly 
comprehends  the  hint  on  its  surface,  and  the  action  excited,  if 


STUDY  OF  ART. 

correctly  delineated,  is  then  true  to  nature,  and  the  right  ex- 
pression is  secured." 

287.  Leonardo  da  Vinci  says,  "  The  principal  and  most  im- 
portant consideration  required  in  the  drawing  of  figures,  is,  to 
set  the  head  well  upon  the  shoulders,  the  chest  upon  the  hips, 
and  the  hips  and  shoulders  upon  the  feet." 

288.  To  accomplish    this  difficult  art  requires  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  figure,  the  posi- 
tion and  form  of  the  bones,  muscles,  and  joints ;  their  uses  as 
well  as  their  effects  upon  the  surface  both  in  action  and  in  re- 
pose.    In  addition  to  this,  the  artist  must  have  acquired  great 
mechanical   skill   in   execution.      With   such   knowledge   and 
ability,  the  mind  and  hand  work  in  unison,  and  it  is  only  when 
they  do  (guided  by  an  eye  for  the  beautiful  and  graceful),  that 
those  ideal  forms  are  produced  that  the  world  acknowledges  to 
be   standards  of  beauty.     If  by  his    limited  knowledge   and 
practice,  an  artist  is  confined  to  a  model,  the  figure  represented 
will  be  more  or  less  individual,  and  of  course,  perishable ;  for 
history  proves,  that  in  works  of  art,  ideal  beauty  is  more  pleas- 
ing and  will  outlast  the  representation  of  individual  beauty. 

289.  All  the  great  masters  were  incessant  in  their  study  of 
drawing ;  and  diligently  practiced  it,  after  having  commenced 
with  coloring.     Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  who  deeply  studied  their 
works,  says,  "  When  they  conceived  a  work,  they  first  made  a 
variety  of  sketches  ;  then   a  finished  drawing  of  the  whole ; 
after  that,  a  more  correct  drawing  of  every  separate  part,  head, 
hands,  feet,   and  pieces  of   drapery ;    they  then   painted  the 
picture,  and  after  all,  re-touched  it  from  the  life ;"  and  he  adds, 
"  the  pictures  thus  wrought  with  such  pains,  now  appear  like 
the  effect  of   enchantment.      As  if  some  mighty  genius  had 
struck  them  off  at  a  blow." 

290.  This  spirited  mode  of  performing  a  work,  showing  a 
ready  mind  and  a  practiced  hand,  is  termed  by  artists,  execu- 
tion.    Michael  Angelo's  execution  was  powerful,  the  result  of 
hard  study  and  long  practice  by  which  he  had  made  himself 


DRAWING  OF  THE   FIGURE.  95 

master  of  bis  art.     On  the  contrary,  a  weak  and  feeble  execu- 
tion betrays  an  ignorant  mind  and  an  unpracticed  hand. 

291.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  rules  of  art,  and  a  skill- 
ful handling  of  the  pencil  require  many  years  of  laborious 
practice.      Michael  Angelo  studied  anatomy  twelve  years;  it 
was  his  thorough  knowledge  of  every  bone  and  muscle,  thus 
acquired,  that  gave  him  such  mastery  in  the  art.     Some  of  his 
sketches  show,  that  his  practice  was,  first  to  draw  the  bones, 
and  then  make  out  the  figure  upon  that  foundation.     He  had 
made  himself  familiar  with  every  muscle  in  the  human  frame, 
and  knew  precisely  which  one  should  be  brought  in  action  to 
express  the  passion  or  emotion  that  he  wished  to  delineate. 
With  this  thorough  knowledge  and  practice  of  the  grammar  of 
the  art,  rules  are  no  restraint  to  that  freedom  of  hand  by  which 
pictures  are  produced  that  seem  the  result  of  inspiration. 

292.  Michael  Angelo  was  not  only  a  painter  and  sculptor,  he 
excelled  also  in  architecture,  and  maintained  that  no  man  could 
make  a  good  architect,  who  did  not  thoroughly  understand  the 
construction  and  proportions  of  the  human  figure. 

293.  Many  authorities  might  be  produced  to  prove  the  im- 
portance  of  training   artists   of  every   grade   to  the  highest 
standard  of  excellence.     And  also,  many  facts  stated  to  prove 
the  advantage  that  this  training  gives  in  the  practice  of  art  in 
every  department.    "  A  dispute  once  arose  between  two  artists, 
Giordano,  a  historical  painter,  and  Andrea  del  Sarto,  a  famous 
painter  of  fruits  and  flowers.     The  latter  maintained  that  his- 
torical painters  could  not  venture  on  these  smaller  subjects ; 
while  Giordano  insisted  that  the  greater  included  the  less ;  and 
verified  his  words  by  painting  a  picture  of  birds,  fruits,  and 
flowers,  which  so  much  excelled  Andrea's,  that  he  felt  himself 
entirely  eclipsed  and  gave  up  the  practice  of  the  art."* 

294.  This  fact  proves,  that  the  highest  department  of  art  is 
the  best  field  for  the  cultivation  of  talent.     The  ancient  gladi- 
ators were  exercised  with  heavier  arms  than  those  with  which 
they  fought ;  because  a  person  accustomed  to  perform  things 

*  Lanzi,  Vol  II.,  p.  52. 


96 


STUDY  OF  ART. 


more  difficult  than  the  ordinary  exercise  of  his  employment 
requires,  makes  it  easy  of  accomplishment.  For  the  same 
reason  the  ancient  tragedians  accustomed  themselves  to  declaim 
when  seated,  which  is  much  more  difficult  than  the  same  exer- 
cise when  standing.  This  principle  pervades  the  practice  of 
every  art,  and  with  proper  culture  a  little  talent  is  susceptible 
of  great  improvement,  and  may  be  so  developed  as  to  produce 
works  of  intrinsic  excellence. 

295.  Benjamin  West  says,  "  It  may  be  assumed  as  an  unques- 
tionable principle,  that  the  artist  who  has  made  himself  master 
of  the  drawing  of  the  human  figure,  in  its  moral  and  physical 
expression,  will  succeed  not  only  in  portrait-painting,  but  in  the 
delineation  of  animals,  and  even  of  still-life,  much  better  than 
if  he  had  directed  his  attention  to  inferior  objects.     For  the 
human  figure  in  that  point  of  consideration,  in  which  it  becomes 
a  model  to  art,  is  more  beautiful  than  any  other  in  nature ;  and 
is  distinguished,  above  every  other,  by  the  variety  of  the  pheno- 
mena which  it  exhibits,  arising  from  the  different  modifications 
of  feelings  and  passion.     In  my  opinion,  it  would,  therefore,  be 
of  incalculable  advantage  to  the  public,  if  the  drawing  of  the 
human  figure  were  taught  as  an  elementary  essential  in  educa- 
tion.   It  would  do  more  than  any  other  species  of  oral  or  written 
instruction,  to  implant  among  the  youth  of  the  noble  and  opu- 
lent classes,  that  correctness  of  taste  which  is  so  ornamental  to 
their  rank  in  society  ;  while  it  would  guide  the  artisan  in  the 
improvement  of  his  productions  in  such  a  manner,  as  greatly  to 
enrich  the  stock  of  manufactures,  and  to  increase  the  articles 
of  commerce ;  and  as  the  sight  is,  perhaps,  the  most  delightful 
of  all  our  senses,  this  education  of  the  eye  would  multiply  the 
sources  of  enjoyment. 

296.  "  The  value  of  the  cultivated  ear  is  well  understood ;  and 
the  time  bestowed  on  the  acquisition  of  the  universal  language 
of  music,  is  abundantly  repaid  by  the  gratification  it  affords, 
although  not  employed  in  the  communication  of  knowledge,  but 
merely  as  a  source  of  agreeable   sensation.     Were  the  same 
attention  paid  to  the  improvement  of  the  eye,  which  is  given  to 


DRAWING  OF  THE  FIGURE.  97 

that  of  the  ear,  should  we  not  be  rewarded  with  as  great  an 
increase  of  the  blameless  pleasures  of  life,  from  the  powers  of 
discriminating  hues  and  forms,  as  we  derive  from  the  know- 
ledge of  musical  proportions  and  sounds  ?  The  cultivation  of 
the  sense  of  sight  would  have  such  an  effect  in  improving  even 
the  faculty  of  executing  those  productions  of  mechanical  labor 
which  constitute  so  large  a  portion  of  the  riches  of  a  commer- 
cial and  refined  people,  that  it  ought  to  be  regarded,  among  the 
mere  operative  classes  of  society  as  a  primary  object  in  the 
education  of  their  apprentices.  Indeed  it  may  be  confidently 
asserted,  that  an  artisan,  accustomed  to  an  accurate  division  of 
outline,  will,  more  readily  than  another  not  educated  with  equal 
care  in  that  particular,  perceive  the  fitness  or  defects  of  every 
species  of  mechanical  contrivance;  and,  in  consequence,  be 
enabled  to  suggest  expedients  which  would  tend  to  enlarge  the 
field  of  invention.  We  can  form  no  idea  to  ourselves,  how 
many  of  the  imperfections  in  the  most  ingenious  of  our 
machines  and  engines  would  have  been  obviated,  had  the  in- 
ventors been  accustomed  to  draw  with  accuracy. 

297.  '<  But  to  the  student  of  the  fine  arts,  this  important 
branch  of  education  will  yield  but  few  of  the  advantages  it  is 
calculated  to  afford,  unless  his  studies  are  directed  by  a  philo- 
sophical spirit,   and   the   observation   of  physical   expression 
rendered    conducive  to  some  moral    purpose.      Without  the 
guidance  of  such  a  spirit,  painting  and  sculpture  are  but  orna- 
mental manufactures  ;  and  the  works  of  Raffaelle  and  Michael 
Angelo,   considered  without   reference    to   the    manifestations 
which  they  exhibit  of  moral  influence,  possess  no  merit  beyond 
the  productions  of  the  ordinary  paper-hanger." 

298.  The  human  figure  presents  to  the  student  a  subject  in 
the  study  of  which  he  may  learn  the  guiding  principles  for  the 
practice  of  every  department  of  art.     Complete  success  in  form, 
light  and  shade,  and  color,  requires  that  the  artist  should  apply 
himself  to  the  mastery  of  it,  as  a  musician  to  the  study  of  sound, 
with  its  many  variations  and  combinations,  before  attempting 
musical  composition. 


98  STUDY  OF  ART. 

299.  Nothing  but  this  thorough  preparation  will  enable  him 
to  do  justice  to  his  own  abilities.     Many  fine  conceptions  are 
lost  from  the  inability  to  give  them  expression,  even  when  the 
artist  has  become  a  proficient  in  what  may  be  called  surface 
painting.     The  ambition  to  gain  the  title  of  self-taught  artist, 
has  deterred  many  from  acquiring  the  principles  of  art.     Too 
much  is  sacrificed  to  this  limited  aspiration,  for  none  but  self- 
taught  judges  will  commend  self-taught  artists,  and  the  united 
praises  of  their  contemporaries  will  not  save  them  from  oblivion, 
or  their  works  from  banishment,  to  make  room  for  the  productions 
of  their  followers,  belonging  to  the  same  remarkable  order,  who, 
in  turn,  will  have  their  little  day,  giving  equal  delight  to  con- 
temporary friends  and  admirers. 

300.  We  never  hear  of  a  self-taught  musical  composer,  or  a 
self-taught  poet.     The  world  requires  in  them  a  strict  obser- 
vance of  the  rules  of  their  respective  arts,  positively  refusing  to 
tolerate  musical  errors,  or  false  metre ;  and,  at  the  same  time, 
countenancing  and  encouraging  the  most  unpardonable  faults  in 
"  brother  Brush,"  who,  confident  of  this  favor,  ignores  all  rules, 
and  defies  all  criticism,  (h) 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PERSPECTIVE    AND    LINE. 

301.  THIS  work  will  not  include  instruction  in  the  important 
department  of  perspective  beyond  an  explanation  of  the  funda- 
mental principle. 

302.  The  correct  representation  of  objects  as  they  appear  to 
the  eye  in  their  relative  dimensions  and  distances,  requires  the 
application  of  straight  lines,  without  which  it  is  difficult  to  suc- 
ceed in  the  drawing  of  a  complicated  subject.     If  the  student 
would  thoroughly  understand  the  art,  the  first  question  for  him 
to  ask  is  :  Why  must  the  straight  lines  be  drawn  ?    It.  is  because 
everything  is  made  visible  to  us  by  light,  and  light  moves  in 
straight  lines. 

303.  In  nature,  what  is  termed  the  horizon-line,  is  always 
found  to  be  just  the  height  of  the  eye.     This  is  because  the 
earth  is  under  the  eye,  and  the  sky  above  it.     Consequently, 
the  line  where  the  two  meet  is  exactly  on  a  level  with  the  eye. 
Any  person  can  prove  this  by  observation,  either  on  a  plain  or 
the  sea  shore. 

304.  It  follows  that  the  correct  representation  of  a  group  of 
objects  on  a  plane  surface  must  be  regulated  by  a  horizon-line, 
corresponding  to  the  natural   horizon,   dividing  what   should 
appear  above,  and  what  below  the  eye.    In  arranging  a  picture, 
this  line  must  be  first  decided,  because  it  controls  every  other 
line  in  the  composition.     The  point  of  sight  where  the  lines 
come  to  a  focus,  must  be  opposite  the  point  of  view,  which  is 
without  the  picture. 


100  STUDY  OF  ART. 

305.  The  point  of  distance,  in  perspective  drawing,  decides 
the  proportions  of  objects ;  on  the  choice  of  this  point,  depends 
both  the  truth  and  beauty  of  the  representation.     It  is,  therefore, 
of  great  importance.     No  object,  or  group  of  objects,  can  be 
seen  to  advantage,  unless  the  spectator  is  at  such  a  distance 
from  it,  that  he  can  conveniently  and  distinctly  observe  the 
whole  at  a  glance ;  that  is  to  say,  without  perceptibly  moving 
the  head. 

306.  The  horizon-line  may  be  placed  high  or  low,  but  never 
changed  after  it  is  once  fixed.     The  point  of  distance  may  be 
near  or  remote,  according  to  the  taste  and  judgment  of  the  ar- 
tist, in  reference  to  his  subject.     A  study  of  the  best  pictures 
of  various  masters  shows  that,  in  choosing  the  point  of  distance, 
they  were  governed  by  no  arbitrary  rule.     It  is  probable  that 
they  first  made  a  sketch  of  the  subject,  giving  the  desired  effect, 
and  then  corrected  the  arrangement  by  the  laws  of  line  and 
perspective. 

307.  Placing^  the  horizon-line  higher  or  lower  will  be  found 
to  vary  the  drawing  in  every  respect.     If  placed  too  low,  the 
planes  upon  which  the  figures  stand  will  appear  shallow.     By 
placing  it  too  high,  they  will  appear  steep.    If  the  point  of  view, 
or  stand-point  of  the  artist,  is  taken  at  too  great  a  distance,  the 
figures  will  not  be  seen  with  sufficient  distinctness.     If  taken 
too  near,  the  gradation  is  lost,  which  is  necessary  to  ah  agree- 
able effect.     When  a  picture  is  to  be  placed  high,  the  point  of 
sight  should  be  assumed  low,  and  vice  versa,  in  order  to  have 
the  horizon-line  as  near  as  possible  to  that  of  the  spectator. 

308.  The  centre  of  the  picture  does  not  necessarily  mean  the 
central  or  middle  point  of  the  canvas.     The  perspective  centre 
may  be  nearer  to  one  side  than  the  other,  or  nearer  to  the  top 
than  the  bottom. 

309.  Fore-shortening  belongs  to  the  department  of  perspec- 
tive.    Any  figure  drawn  in  geometrical  lines  will  appear  more 
or  less  fore-shortened,  in  proportion  to  its  distance  from  the 
point  of  sight  and  the  horizon-line. 

310.  By  studying  the  subject,  the  student  will  prove  to  him- 


PERSPECTIVE  AND  LINE.  101 

self  that  rules  deduced  from  the  science  of  optics  and  of  geom- 
etry constitute  what  is  properly  called  the  art  of  perspective,  (k) 

311.  Allston   says:  "By  a  line,  in  composition,  is  meant 
something  very  different  from  the  geometrical  definition.     Ori- 
ginally, it  was,  no  doubt,  used  as  a  metaphor ;  but  the  needs  of 
art  have  long  since  converted  this,  and  many  other  words  of 
like  application,  (as  tone,  etc.,)  into  technical  terms.    Line,  thus, 
signifies  the  course,  or  medium,  through  which  the  eye  is  led 
from  one  part  of  the  picture  to  another.     The  indication  of  this 
course  is  various  and  multiform,  appertaining  equally  to  shape, 
to  color,  and  to  light  and  dark ;  in  a  word,  to  whatever  attracts 
and  keeps  the  eye  in  motion.     For  the  regulation  of  these  lines 
there  is  no  rule  absolute,  except  that  they  vary  and  unite ;  nor 
is  the  last  strictly  necessary,  it  being  sufficient,  if  they  so  ter- 
minate, that  the  transition  from  one  to  another  is  made  naturally, 
and  without  effort  by  the  imagination.     Nor  can  any  laws  be 
laid  down  as  to  their  peculiar  character :  this  must  depend  on 
the  nature  of  the  subject. 

312.  "  In  the  wild  and  stormy  scenes  of  Salvator  Rosa,  they 
break  upon  us  with  the  angular  flash  of  lightning ;  the  eye  is 
dashed  up  one  precipice  only  to  be  dashed  down  another ;  then, 
suddenly  hurried  to  the  sky,  it  shoots  up,  almost  in  a  direct 
line,  to  some  sharp-edged  rock ;  whence  pitched,  as  it  were,  into 
a  sea  of  clouds,  bellying  with  circles,  it  partakes  their  motion, 
and  seems  to  reel,  to  roll,  and  to  plunge  with  them  into  the 
depths  of  air. 

313.  "  If  we  pass  from  Salvator  to  Claude,  we  shall  find  a 
system  of  lines  totally  different.     Our  first  impression  from 
Claude  is  that  of  perfect  unity,  and  this  we  have,  even  before 
we  are  conscious  of  a  single  image,  as  if,  circumscribing  his 
scenes  by  a  magic  circle,  he  had  imposed  his  own  mood  on  all 
who  entered  it.     The  spell  then  opens  ere  it  seems  to  have  be 
gun,  acting  upon  us  with  a  vague  sense  of  limitless  expanse, 
yet  so  continuous,  so  gentle,  so  imperceptible  in  its  remotest 
gradations,  as  scarcely  to  be  felt,  till,  combining  with  unity,  we 


102  STUDY   OF  AET. 

find  the  feeling  embodied  in  the  complete  image  of  intellectual 
repose,  fullness  and  rest.  The  mind  thus  disposed,  the  charmed 
eye  glides  into  the  scene ;  a  soft,  undulating  light  leads  it  on, 
from  bank  to  bank,  from  shrub  to  shrub;  now  leaping  and 
sparkling  over  pebbly  brooks  and  sunny  sands ;  now  fainter  and 
fainter,  dying  away  down  shady  slopes,  then  seemingly  quenched 
in  some  secluded  dell ;  yet,  only  for  a  moment,  for  a  dimmer 
ray  again  carries  it  onward,  gently  winding  among  the  boles  of 
trees  and  rambling  vines,  that,  skirting  the  ascent,  seem  to  hem 
in  the  twilight ;  then,  emerging  into  day,  it  flashes  in  sheets 
over  towers,  and  woods,  and  streams,  when  it  finally  dips  into 
an  ocean,  so  far  off,  so  twin-like  with  the  sky,  that  the  doubtful 
horizon,  unmarked  by  a  line,  leaves  no  point  of  rest ;  and  now, 
as  in  a  flickering  arch,  the  fascinated  eye  seems  to  sail  upward 
like  a  bird,  wheeling  its  flight  through  a  mottled  labyrinth  of 
clouds,  on  to  the  zenith;  whence,  gently  inflected  by  some 
shadowy  mass,  it  slants  again  downward  to  a  mass  still  deeper, 
and  still  to  another,  and  another,  until  it  falls  into  the  darkness 
of  some  massive  tree,  focused  like  midnight  in  the  brightest 
noon;  there  stops  the  eye,  instinctively  closing,  and  giving 
place  to  the  soul,  there  to  repose  and  to  dream  her  dreams  of 
romance  and  love. 

314.  "  From  these  two  examples  of  their   general  effect, 
some  notion  may  be  gathered  of  the  different  systems  of  the  two 
artists,  and  though  no  mention  has  been  made  of  the  particular 
lines  employed,  their  distinctive  character  may  readily  be  in- 
ferred from  the  kind  of  motion  given  to  the  eye  in  the  descrip- 
tions we  have  attempted.     In  the  rapid,  abrupt,  contrasted, 
whirling  movement  in  the  one,  we  have  an  exposition  of  an 
irregular  combination  of  the  parabola,  and  the  serpentine  will 
account  for  all  the  imperceptible  transitions  in  the  other. 

315.  "  It  would  be  easy  to  accumulate  examples  from  other 
artists  who  differ  in  the  economy  of  line,  not  only  from  these, 
but  from  each  other,  as  Raffaelle,  Michael  Angelo,  Corregio, 
Titian,  Poussin ;  in  a  word,  every  painter  deserving  the  name 
of  master ;  for  lines,  here,  may  be  called  the  tracks  of  thought, 


PERSPECTIVE  AND  LINE.  103 

in  which  we  follow  the  author's  mind  through  his  imaginary 
creations.  They  hold,  indeed,  the  same  relation  to  painting 
that  versification  does  to  poetry,  an  element  of  style ;  for,  what 
is  meant  by  a  line  in  painting,  is  analogous  to  that  which,  in  the 
sister  art,  distinguishes  the  abrupt  gait  of  Crabbe  from  the 
sauntering  walk  of  Cowley,  and  the  '  long,  majestic  march '  of 
Dry  den,  from  the  surging  sweep  of  Milton." 

316.  Fuseli  attaches  the  same  importance  to  line  as  an  ele- 
ment of  composition — and  says,  "Various  are  the  shapes  in 
which  composition  embodies  its  subject  and  presents  it  to  our 
eye.     The  cone  or  pyramid,  the  globe,  the  grape,  flame,  and 
stream,  the  circle  and  its  segments,  lend  their  figure  to  elevate, 
concentrate,  round,  diffuse  themselves  or  undulate  in  its  masses. 
It  towers  in  the  Apollo,  it  darts  its  flame  forward  in  the  warrior 
of  the   Agasias,   its   lambent   spires   wind   upward   with   the 
Laocoon ;   it  inverts  the  cone  in  the  Hercules  of  Glycon,  it 
doubles  it  or  undulates  in  Venus  and  the  Graces.    In  the  bland 
central  light  of  a  globe  imperceptibly  gliding    through  lucid 
demi-tints  into  rich  reflected  shades,  it  composes  the  spell  of 
Corregio,  and  entrances  like  a  delicious  dream ;  whilst  like  a 
torrent  it  rushes  from  the  hand  of  Tintorett  over  the  trembling 
canvas  in  enormous  wings  of  light  and  shade,  and  keeps  all  indi- 
vidual importance  in  general  effects.    But  whether  its  groups  be 
imbrowned  on  a  lucid  sky,  or  emerge  from  darkness,  whether  it 
break  like  a  meridian  sun  on  the  reflected  object  with  Rubens, 
or  from  Rembrandt,  flash  on  it  in  lightning,  whatever  be  its 
forms  or  its  effect,  if  it  be  more  or  less  than  what  it  ought  to  be 
— a  vehicle,  if  it  branch  not  out  of  the  subject  as  the  produce 
of  its  root,  if  it  do  not  contain  all  that  distinguishes  it  from  other 
subjects,  if  it  leave  out  aught  that  is  characteristic  and  exclu- 
sively its  own,  and  admit  what  is  superfluous  or  commonplace 
— it  is  no  longer  composition,  it  is  grouping  only,  an  ostenta- 
tious or  useless  scaffolding  about  an  edifice  without  a  base ;  such 
was  not  the  composition  of  Raffaelle." 

317.  For  the  choice  of  line,  no  specific  rule  can  be  given. 


104  STUDY  OF  ART. 

The  artist  must  be  guided  by  the  general  laws  of  harmony, 
which  require  that  the  line  should  be  in  keeping  with  the  sub- 
ject. It  may  be  the  parabola,  the  serpentine,  or  the  angle. 
Harmony  also  requires  that  the  character  chosen,  should  per- 
vade every  part  of  the  work. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

LIGHT    AND    SHADE 

318.  To  understand  the  laws  that  govern  light  and  shade,  it 
is  necessary  to  refer  to  the  laws  of  opitics,  or,  that  branch  of 
knowledge  which  treats  of  the  laws  and  properties  of  light  and 
of  vision  as  performed  by  the  eye. 

319.  First.  Light  is  an  emanation  or  something  which  pro- 
ceeds from  bodies  by  means  of  which  they  are  made  visible. 
All  bodies  may  be  divided  into  self-luminous  and  non-luminous. 
Self-luminous  bodies  are  those  which  have  the  power  of  dis- 
charging light.     Non-luminous  bodies  are  those  which  have 
not  the  power  of  discharging  light.     One  non-luminous  body 
may  receive  light  from  another  non-luminous  body  and  discharge 
it  upon  a  third ;  but  the  light  must  originally  come  from  some 
self-luminous  body.     When  a  lighted  candle  is  brought  into  a 
dark  room,  the  form  of  the  flame  is  seen  by  its  own  light  and 
the  objects   in  the  room  are  made  visible  by  the  light  which 
they  receive  from  the  candle  and  again  throw  back.     Those 
objects  on  which  the  light  of  the  candle  does  not  fall,  receive 
reflected  light. 

320.  Second.   All  bodies,  whether  self-luminous  or  non-lumi- 
nous, discharge  light  of  their  own  color.     A  red  flame,  or  a  red- 
hot  body,  discharges  red  light.     A  piece  of  red  cloth  discharges 
red  light,  though  it  is  illuminated  by  the  white  light  of  the 
sun. 

321.  Third.   Light  moves  in  straight  lines,  and  consists  of 
separate  and  independent  parts,  called  rays  of  light.     If  light 

5* 


106  STUDY  OF  ART. 

is  admitted  into  a  room  through  a  small  aperture,  it  will  illumi- 
nate a  spot  on  the  wall  exactly  opposite  the  sun ;  the  middle 
of  the  spot,  the  middle  of  the  hole,  and  the  middle  of  the  sun 
all  being  in  the  same  straight  line.  If  there  is  dust  or  smoke 
in  the  room,  the  progress  of  the  light  in  straight  lines  will  be 
distinctly  seen.  If  a  small  portion  of  the  admitted  light  is 
stopped,  and  the  rest  allowed  to  pass,  the  portion  that  passes  is 
not  in  the  slightest  degree  affected  by  its  separation  from  the 
rest.  The  smallest  portion  of  light,  which  can  either  be  stopped 
or  allowed  to  pass,  is  called  a  ray  of  light. 

322.  Fourth.    When  light  falls  upon  any  body,  part  of  it  is 
reflected,  and  part  absorbed  by  the  body  or  transmitted  through 
it.     When  the  body  is  bright  and  well-polished,  like  silver,  a 
great  part  of  the  light  is  reflected.     When  the  body  is  trans- 
parent, like  glass  or  water,  nearly  all  the  light  is  transmitted, 
and  only  a  small  part  reflected. 

323.  The  principles  of  light,  shade,  and  reflection  as  applied 
to  the  purposes  of  art,  are  best  illustrated  by  the  illumination 
of  a  ball,  either  by  natural  or  artificial  light. 

324.  Suppose  a  ball  to  be  the  object  on  which  the  light  falls  in 
a  direction  of  forty-five  degrees,  or  the  diagonal  of  a  square, 
and  at  a  right  angle  from  the  ball  to  the  place  where  you  stand. 
One  half  the  ball  will  appear  illuminated  and  the  other  dark. 
This  state  of  the  two  hemispheres,  constitutes  the  two  masses 
of  light  and  shade.     In  the  centre  of  the  mass  of  light,  falls 
the  focus  of  illumination  on  the  ball,  between  the  centre  of  the 
illumination  and  the  circle  of  the  ball.     Where  the  illumination 
reaches  its  extremity,  lies  what  may  be  called  the  transparent 
tint  or  shade ;  and  between  this  and  the  dark  side,  lies  what  is 
called  the  aerial  tint,  or  middle  tint.     The  point  of  darkness, 
the  extreme  shade,  is  directly  opposite  the  focus  of  illumination, 
between  which  and  the  aerial  tint,  lies  the  tint  of  reflection,  or 
reflected  light.      If  the  ball  rests  on  a  plane,  it  will  cast  a 
shadow  equal  in  length  to  one  diameter  and  a  quarter  of  the 
ball.     That  shadow  will  be  darker  than  the  shade  on  the  ball, 


LIGHT  AND  SHADE.  107 

and  the  darkest  part  will  be  where  the  plane  and  ball  come  in 
contact. 

325.  A  shadow  can  be  cast  only  by  an  object  that  intercepts 
the  progress  of  the  rays  of  light.     The  object  as  we  commonly 
say,  being  in  the  light,  casts  a  shadow. 

326.  The   gradation  of  the  shade,  and  the  casting  of  the 
shadow  in  works  of  art,  is  technically  called  sciagraphy,  from 
two  Greek  words  signifying  a  shadow,  and  to  describe.     It  is  a 
distinct  science  of  which  we  give  only  a  few  of  the  leading 
principles. 

327.  First.    The  comparative  size  of  the  luminary,  and  the 
object  illuminated  must  be  considered.     If  the  lumious  object, 
which  causes  the  shadow,  is  larger  than  the  body  that  inter- 
cepts the  light,  the  cast  shadow  diminishes  in  proportion  to  the 
distance  of  that  body  from  the  source  of  light.     But,  if  the 
luminous  body  is  the  smallest,  the  shadow  increases  with  the 
distance.     This  is  easily  demonstrated  by  lines  supposed  to  be 
drawn  from  the  source  of  light  to  the  figure  illuminated. 

328.  Second.   The  relative  position  of  the  luminary  in  rela- 
tion to  the  object  intercepting  the  light  is  to  be  considered,  as 
on  that,  as  well  as  on   their   size  depends  the  extent  of  the 
shadow  cast.     If  the  light  is  high  above  the  object,  the  shadow 
will  be  short.     If  low,  as  at  sunset,  the  shadow  will  be  long. 
Cast  shadows  vary  in  degree  with  the  opacity,  or  transparency 
of  the  objects  by  which  they  are  thrown,  and  also,  with  the 
degree  of  brilliancy  in  the  source  of  light.     When  the  light 
proceeds  from  a  small  luminary,  as  a  candle,  or  from  a  small 
aperture,  the  shadows  cast  are  stronger  than  when  it  proceeds 
from  the  sun  or  open  daylight,  as  they  are  then  modified  by  the 
reflection  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 

329.  For  the  effect  of  light  on  a  group  of  objects,  Titian  says  : 
"  Study  the  effect  of  light  and  shade  on  a  bunch  of  grapes." 
Each  individual  grape  has  its  own  light,  shade,  reflection,  and 
cast  shadow ;  and  the  bunch  as  a  whole,  has  its  focus  of  light, 
its  gradation,  reflection,  and  cast  shadow.     The  ball  illustrates 
the  principle  for  the  focus,  gradation  and  reflection  of  light  on 


108  STUDY  OF  ART. 

a  single  object.  The  bunch  of  grapes  illustrates  it  equally  well 
on  a  group  of  objects.  The  student  will  find  the  principle  of 
light,  as  derived  from  nature,  made  clear  by  studying  the  effect 
of  light,  both  natural  and  artificial,  on  these  two  objects,  cast  in 
plaster.  By  studying  the  effect  of  light  on  the  grapes,  he  will 
learn  how  the  gradations  and  reflections  produce  harmony  of 
light  and  shade. 

330.  It  is  sometimes  said  that  we  see  no  such  effect  in  nature. 
This  is  for  the  want  of  an  opportunity.     If  a  position  could  be 
obtained  where  the  effect  of  the  sun-light  upon  the  earth  could 
be  observed,  we  should  (supposing  the  world  to  be  round)  see 
precisely  the  same  effect  that  we  find  upon  the  ball  with  the 
light  coming  from  one  luminary. 

331.  In  regard  to  the  relief  of  figures,  objects  contrasted 
with  a  light  back-ground,  will  appear  much  more  detached  than 
those  placed  against  a  dark  one.     Those  parts  which  are  far- 
thest from  the  light  will  remain  the  darkest,  and  every  distinc- 
tion of  outline  will  be  lost  in  the  general  mass  of  shadows ;  and, 
unless  they  have  their  reflexes,  they  will  either  cut  hard  upon 
the  ground,  or  appear  to  become  a  part  of  it.     All  bodies  being 
surrounded  by  light  and  shade,  the  artist  may  so  arrange  his 
figures  that  the  dark  side  will  fall  upon  a  light  ground,  and  the 
light  side  upon  a  dark  ground.     This  arrangement  serves  to 
detach  the  figure,  and,  at  the  same  time,  contributes  to  harmony 
of  effect.     The  reflected  lights  will  be  more  or  less  apparent,  in 
proportion  as  they  are  seen  against  a  darker  or  brighter  ground, 
because  of  the  force  of  contrast.     Reflected  lights  may  be  so 
thrown  as  to  modify  the  force  of  a  cast  shadow. 

332.  The  term  chiaro-scuro  is  adopted  from  the  Italian;  and, 
in  its  primary  and  simplest  sense,  means  the  division  of  a  single 
object  into  light  and  shade ;  and,  in  its  widest  compass,  com- 
prises the  distribution  of  light  and  shade  over  a  group  of 
objects. 

333.  The  exclusive  power  of  chiaro-scuro  is  to  give  substance 
to  form,  place  to  figure,  and  to  create  space.     In  its  appli- 


LIGHT  AND    SHADE.  109 

cation  to  painting,  chiaro-scuro  comprises  the  proper  gradations 
of  lights  and  shades  on  objects  placed  in  certain  positive  lights, 
and  at  certain  distances. 

334.  Great  care  is  necessary,  both  in  the  distribution  and 
their  gradations  from  light  to  dark,  because,  by  the  arrangement 
of  these,  the  position  of  different  objects  is  expressed  in  regard 
to  distance. 

335.  Shade  must  not  be  confounded  with  obscurity,  which  is 
an  entire  privation  of  light,  while  shade  is  merely  its  gradation : 
the  figures  in  shade  still  being  radiated  by  the  general  disper- 
sion of  light.     From  light  to  shade,  there  should  be  an  imper- 
ceptible transition.     If  the  demi-tints,  or  semi-tones,  are  want- 
ing, the  lights  appear  like  so  many  spots.     For  the  gradation 
of  light  that  produces  the  demi-tints,  (which  are  absolutely  es- 
sential to  the  unity  of  the  parts,)  there  are  two  causes  :  first,  the 
objects  recede  from  the  light,  and  next,  from  the  spectator. 

336.  In  the  distribution  of  light  and  shade  on  objects,  their 
forms  must  be  considered.     In  nature,  all  forms  are  more  or 
less  round ;  and,  when  illuminated  by  the  sun,  or  a  flame,  or  by 
an  aperture  admitting  light,  must  have  two  relative  extremes 
of  light  and  shade ;  two  balancing  tints,  the  illuminated  and  re- 
flected, divided  by  a  middle  or  aerial  tint.     The  effect  of  illumi- 
nation by  a  flame,  or  aperture,  differs  from  that  of  the  sun  in 
this  respect :  the  sun  illumines  all  parts  of  the  enlightened  side 
of  an  object,  while  the  light  of  a  flame,  or  light   admitted 
through  an  aperture,  strikes  only  on  the  nearest  point,  pro- 
ducing an  effect  more  or  less  resembling  natural  light,  according 
to  the  relative  dimensions  of  the  light  and  the  object,  and  the 
distance  which  separates  them. 

337.  Carefully  observe  the  reflected  lights  giving  them  a  soft 
and  transparent  effect.     Every  object  that  receives  light,  re- 
flects it  upon  some  contiguous  object,  and  it  is  only  by  pre- 
serving these  reflections  that  the  proper  relief  can  be  given  to 
the  various  parts  of  a  composition,  particularly  to  those  in  the 
shade.     The  reflected  lights  serve  to  detach  objects  that  are 
thrown  in  the  shade,  and  give  them  distinctness,  without  which 


110  STUDY  OF  ART. 

they  would  be  lost  in  obscurity.  From  ignorance  of  their  im- 
portance and  effect,  a  painter,  sometimes,  omits  them ;  and,  for 
the  purpose  of  making  each  object  distinct  to  the  eye,  gives  one 
broad  glare  of  light  over  the  whole  subject.  But  light  cannot 
be  made  a  substitute  for  more  essential  and  indispensable  re- 
quisites. Too  much  of  it  only  serves  to  destroy  simplicity  and 
unity,  and  the  spectator  soon  turns  to  some  more  quiet,  and, 
therefore,  more  attractive  subject.  The  color  of  objects  from 
which  reflected  lights  proceed  must  also  be  carefully  observed, 
because  from  them  they  take  their  hue. 

338.  Collection  and  combination  are  the  great  principles  of 
chiaro-scuro.     The  lights  and  shades  must  be  so  distributed  as 
to  give  force  and  strength  to  the  picture,  when  viewed  as  a 
whole.     Excellence  in  this  department  requires  that  the  artist 
should  collect  and  manage  his  lights  in  such  a  manner  that  each 
one  will  support  and  relieve  another.     If  they  are  multiplied, 
broken,  subdivided,  no  relief  will  be  obtained;  but,  if  the  re- 
lative parts  are  harmonized,  and  so  arranged  as  to  give  shade  to 
light,  and  light  to  shade,  they  form  a  strong  combination,  and 
produce  a  powerful  effect. 

339.  In  its  application  to  art,  light  is  divided  into  four  differ- 
ent kinds  :  natural,  artificial,  mixed  and  super-natural,  or  ideal. 

340.  Natural  light  proceeds  directly  from  the  sun,  and  varies: 
first,  according  to  the  time  of  day ;  second,  when  it  proceeds 
from  a  clear  atmosphere,  but  is  not  direct  from  the  sun,  as,  for 
instance,  from  a  northern  window,  where  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun  cannot  enter,  but  are  reflected ;  third,  when  the  rays  of  the 
sun  pass  through  clouds  and  mists ;  fourth,  moon-light. 

341.  When  the  light  proceeds  from  the  sun,  the  lights  on  the 
objects  that  receive  it  are  broad  in  proportion  to  the  shadows 
and  shades.  (§  327.)  A  subdued  light  is  the  most  agreeable  in  a 
picture,  because  it  does  not  weary  the  eye,  which  shrinks  from 
a  broad  glare.     It  is  not  wearied  with  the  same  thing  in  nature, 
for,  in  that,  there  is  the  variety  of  life  and  motion.     As  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  life  of  nature,  which  it  is  impossible  for  the  artist 


LIGHT  AND    SHADE.  Ill 

to  transfer  to  his  canvas,  he  must,  by  the  aid  of  his  imagination, 
give  some  ideal  effect  that  will  please  the  eye,  or  gratify  the 
taste. 

342.  Nothing  gives  the  artist  so  good  an  opportunity  for  an 
agreeable  effect  of  light,  as  the  presence  of  clouds  or  mists, 
which  present  a  subject  that  is  universally  pleasing. 

343.  In  the  representation  of  moon-light,  but  few  excel. 

344.  Artificial  light  is  that  which  proceeds  from  a  candle,  or 
fire,  and  produces  more  or  less  effect,  according  to  the  presence 
or  absence  of  other  light.     In  the  application  of  artificial  light, 
the  lights  which  fall  on  the  subject  are  small,  in  proportion  to 
the  shades  and  shadows,  and,  in  order  to  obtain  the  right  effect, 
pictures  representing  an  artificial  light  should  be  studied  by 
an   artificial   light,   and  the  laws  of  sciagraphy  carefully  ob- 
served. (§  327.) 

345.  By  mixed  light,  is  meant  the  introduction  of  both  na- 
tural and  artificial  lights  in  the  same  subject.     This  is  a  diffi- 
cult art,  but,  if  done  with  skill,  may  have  great  effect.     Some 
of  the  Dutch  pictures  of  interiors  furnish  examples  for  the  illus- 
tration of  the  principles  of  chiaro-scuro,  and  also  for  mixed  light, 
which  may  be  studied  with  great  advantage. 

346.  Super-natural,  or  ideal  light,  is  created  by  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  painter,  and  is  regulated  by  the  laws  of  artificial 
light.  (§336.)   Corregio's  Notte  is  a  fine  example  of  super-natural 
light  as  applied  to  art. 

347.  Aerial  perspective  belongs  to  the  department  of  light 
and  shade,  by  which  is  meant  such  a  gradation  of  light  from  the 
fore-ground  of  a  picture  to  the  horizon-line,  as  will  represent 
each  object  introduced,  according  to  its  true  distance  from  the 
point  of  view.  (§  333.) 


CHAPTER   IX. 

COLOR    AND    ITS    LAWS. 

348.  COLOR  distinguishes  painting  from  the  other  imitative 
arts.     Form,  composition,  design,  expression,  are  common  to 
all.     Complete  success  in  the  art  of  painting  depends  upon  the 
right  combination  and  arrangement  of  colors. 

349.  The  laws  of  light  and  shade,  given  in  the  last  lesson, 
apply  also  to  color ;  for  bodies  appear  to  us  colored  only  in  pro- 
portion as  they  are  illuminated  by  the  light  of  the  sun.     Hence, 
an  object  of  any  color,  thrown  entirely  in  the  shade,  becomes 
colorless. 

350.  Red,  blue,  and  yellow  are  the  primary  elements  of  all 
color,  and,  from  the  union  of  these  elements,  in  certain  propor- 
tions, is  formed  every  conceivable  variety  of  tint  and  hue. 
White  and  black,  in  reference  to  art,  are  not  considered  as 
colors,  but  as  the  modifiers  of  colors.     The  nature  of  colors, 
their  relation  to  one  another,  and  the  effect  of  light,  shade  and 
reflection,  must  be  well  understood  before  a  correct  combination 
can  be  formed. 

351.  Prismatic  colors. — Light,  as  it  surrounds  us,  appears 
white ;  but  we  no  sooner  dissever  a  ray  by  the  prism,  than  we 
find  that  light  contains  three  distinct  colors ;  viz. :  red,  blue,  and 
yellow.     Other  colors  shown  by  the  prism,  the  orange,  green, 
indigo,  and  violet,  are  formed  by  the  intermingling  of  blue,  red, 
and  yellow. 


COLOR  AND  ITS  LAWS.  113 

352.  Order  of  rays : — 

Extreme  red,  (of  a  crimson  character),  discovered  only  when 
the  eye  is  protected  from  the  glare  of  the  other  rays  by  a 
cobalt  blue  glass ; 

Red,  first  ray  visible  to  the  eye  without  the  glass ; 

Orange,  formed  by  its  passing  into,  and  mingling  with  yellow ; 

Yellow,  the  most  intensely  luminous  of  the  rays ; 

Green,  formed  by  the  intermingling  of  yellow  and  blue ; 

Blue,  in  which  the  light  rapidly  diminishes ; 

Indigo,  deep  blue ; 

Violet,  formed  by  the  intermingling  of  blue  and  red ; 

Lavender  gray,  a  neutral  tint  produced  by  the  combination 
of  red,  blue,  and  yellow  rays. 

In  regard  to  the  natural  colors,  as  they  appear  to  the  eye, 
in  the  red,  yellow  and  blue  are  subordinate ;  in  the  yellow, 
red  and  blue  are  subordinate ;  in  the  blue,  red  and  yellow  are 
subordinate  ;  and  in  the  secondary  colors  the  third  primary  is 
subordinate.  This  theory  is  the  basis  of  all  good  coloring. 
Let  the  student  in  art  place  a  mirror  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
reflect  the  sky,  or  any  other  natural  object,  and  then  with  his 
palette  match  the  color  thrown  upon  it ;  in  the  experiment  he 
will  test  this  principle  of  nature  for  himself,  and  make  it  more 
completely  his  own.  (i) 

353.  Pure  colors. — Red,  blue  and  yellow,  being  the  primary 
colors,  it  follows,  that  by  the  combination  of  these  colors,  in 
certain  proportions,  every  true  variety  of  color  and  hue  is  pro- 
duced.    Let  the  student  place  on  his  palette,  in  a  circular  row, 
a   small  portion  of  the  primary  colors,  leaving  intermediate 
spaces  between  them.     Then,  with  his  pencil,  mingle  blue  and 
yellow,  he  will  produce  green ;  mingle  red  and  yellow,  he  will 
produce  orange ;  mingle  red  and  blue,  and  the  product  will  be 
violet.      He  then  has  six  colors ;    three  primary,  and   three 
secondary,  which  represent  the  only  pure  colors  found  in  nature. 
The  extreme  red  and  indigo,  shown  by  the   prism,  are  deep 
shades  of  pure  red  and  blue. 

4 


114  STUDY  OF  ART. 

354.  Modified   colors. — The    intensity    of    a    pure    color 
may   be    modified   and    reduced   in   power,   by   mixing   with 
it   a   portion   of   the   other   two   primaries;   for   instance,    to 
modify   red,    add    yellow    and    blue;   to    modify   blue,    add 
yellow  and  red;  to  modify  yellow,  add  blue  and  red.     The 
color  thus   modified,  retains   its  true  character,  but  loses  in 
force.      A   secondary  color,   formed   by  the   combination   of 
two  primaries,  may  be  modified  by  the  addition  of  the  third 
primary. 

355.  Warm  and  cold  colors. — Warm  colors  so  called,  are 
those  that  are  allied  to  fire,  as  the  red  and  yellow,  and  the 
orange,  formed  by  the   combination  of  these  two  primaries. 
Cold  colors  are  blue  and  green,  in  which  the  warm  are  sub- 
ordinate.    The  violet  is   intermediate  between  the  warm  and 
cold. 

35G.  Natural  order  of  colors. — The  same  experiment  that 
illustrates  the  laws  that  determine  the  arrangement  of  light, 
is  the  best  for  illustrating  the  order  of  colors,  because 
in  respect  to  each  there  is  a  corresponding  tone ;  that  is,  in 
regard  to  their  brightness  or  intensity.  A  plain  globe  when 
illuminated  by  the  rays  of  the  sun,  will  display  all  possible 
shades  of  its  own  color.  The  focus  of  illumination  will  exhibit 
the  strongest  color,  and  from  that,  there  will  be  a  regular  gra- 
dation to  the  deepest  shade  on  the  globe. — (§  324.) 

357.  To  understand  the  principles  of  color  still  farther,  place 
the  prismatic  colors  on  the  ball ;  yellow  will  answer  to  the  focus 
of  illumination;  next  to  which,  the  red  naturally  belongs. 
These  two  intermingling,  form  the  orange ;  so  that  we  have 
first  the  yellow,  then  the  orange,  then  red.  Next  to  red  belongs 
the  blue ;  the  mingling  of  these  two  primaries,  red  and  blue, 
forms  the  violet,  the  intermediate  between  the  warm  and  cold 
colors,  and  comes  next  in  order ;  then  follows  the  green.  With 
this  order  of  arrangement,  the  artist  will  always  give  the  true 
distance  to  each  object  introduced  in  his  composition ;  still,  he 
raust  be  careful  to  avoid  formality,  which,  if  he  pays  due  atten- 


COLOR  AND  ITS  LAWS.  115 

tion  to  the  modification  of  colors,  is  easily  accomplished  without 
any  violation  of  the  rule  of  order. 

358.  Absorption  of  color. — No  body  is  perfectly  transparent, 
therefore  in  every  substance  that  receives  and  transmits  light, 
more  or  less  is  lost  by  absorption.     If  all  bodies  absorb  light 
according  to  their  opacity  or  transparency,  it  follows  that  they 
absorb  more  or  less  color  of  which  light  is  composed  ;  hence, 
no  painter  can  color  according  to  nature,  without  combining  all 
three  primaries  in  every  hue  of  his  palette.     An  artist  ignorant 
of  these  laws,  will  attempt  to  represent  flesh  tint  with  pure  red 
and  white ;  but,  to  imitate  the  colors  of  nature  with  truth,  he 
must  add  yellow  and  blue  to  his  combination  ;  thus  he  will  find 
it  in  the  representation  of  the  rose,  or  any  other  tint  of  red. 
Truth  to  nature  requires  the  combination  of  the  primary  colors 
in  the  representation  of  every  natural  object.     Pure  colors  are 
furnished  in  every  variety,  but  the  strong  blues  with  which  the 
artist  makes  his  rich  greens,  will  not  give  the  right  hue  to  his 
imitation  of  a  blush  rose.     In  his  discrimination  and  combina- 
tion, he  shows  his  taste  and  skill.    Some  artists  color  with  truth 
and  good  taste,  guided  by  the  eye  alone ;  yet  in  imitating  nature, 
much  is  gained  by  understanding  her  laws,  and  making  them 
the  foundation  of  his  guiding  principle. 

359.  Reflection  of  colors. — Rays  of  light  falling  upon  a  body 
more  or  less  transparent,  or  opaque,  are  either  absorbed  or 
reflected.     In  nature,  absorption,  as  we  have  seen,  shows  the 
secondary  colors ;  reflection  shows  the  primary.     A  red  sub- 
stance absorbs  the  blue  and  yellow  rays,  and  throws  back  the 
red.     A  blue  substance  absorbs  red  and  yellow,  and  throws 
back  the  blue.     A  yellow  absorbs  the  red  and  blue,  and  throws 
back  the  yellow.     This  can  clearly  be  seen  if  a  white  substance 
is  so  placed  as  to  receive  the  reflected  rays  from  any  blue, 
red,  or  yellow  body.     This  law  of  nature,  that  all  bodies  throw 
back  their  own  color,  it  is  important  for  the  artist  to  keep  in 
mind. 

360.  If  a  yellow  body  is  placed  against  a  white,  the  white 
will  receive  yellow  rays,  which  may  be  distinctly  seen,  while 


116  STUDY  OF  ART. 

the  yellow  will  receive  white  light.  If  a  red  body  is  placed 
against  a  yellow,  there  will,  in  the  mutual  reflection,  be  an  in- 
termingling of  the  two  colors,  forming  a  hue  which  the  colorist 
must,  if  he  would  be  true  to  nature,  carefully  observe  in  his 
reflected  lights.  This  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  atmosphere 
of  a  picture. 

361.  Law  of  contrast. — Let  the  student  place  on  his  palette 
a  portion  of  the  three  primary  colors,  blue,  red,  and  yellow. 
If  he  combines  the  yellow  and  the  blue,  green  is  formed.     He 
has  then  but  two  colors ;  one  primary  and  one  secondary.     The 
red,  being  left  pure,  is  then  the  contrasting  color  to  the  green. 
By  combining  the  red  and  the  yellow,  orange  is  formed ;  blue 
is  then  the  pure  and  contrasting  color.    Red  and  blue  combined, 
form  the  violet,  to  which  the  pure  yellow  is  the  contrasting 
color.     Such  is  the  simple  law  of  contrast,  and  these  three  are 
the  only  pure  contrasts  in  nature ;  all  others  being  modifica- 
tions.    Whatever  the  combination,  the  purest  color  introduced, 
which  may  be  a  secondary,  is  the  contrasting  one ;  because  it 
has  the  most  power  over  the  eye.     In  the  contrast  between 
pure  red  and  green,  red  is  the  strongest,  and  commands  the 
eye.     On  the  contrary,  if  the  red  is  modified,  and  its  strength 
reduced  by  the  addition  of  blue  and  yellow,  and  then  opposed 
to  bright  green,  the  green  becomes  the  characteristic  color  of 
the  contrast.    The  effect  of  contrast  in  any  combination  is  never 
obtained  without  the  modification  of  colors,  on  the  principle  of 
pure  contrast,  both  in  the  primaries  and  secondaries. 

362.  The  contrast  between  red  and  green  is  considered  the 
purest,  because  in  that  there  is  the  nearest  balance  of  light  and 
shade ;  the  yellow  and  violet  is  the  strongest ;  and  the  blue  and 
orange  the  intermediate.     The  red  and  green,  having  all  the 
light  that  is  necessary  to  contrast,  with  an  equal  balance  of  light 
and  shade,  is  the  most  pleasing  to  the  eye.     The  contrast  of 
yellow  and  violet  is  positive  and  powerful,  and  is  seldom  found 
in  nature,  compared  with  the  frequency  of  red  and  green.     The 
blue  and  orange  is  more  quiet,  and  produces  less  impression 


COLOR  AND  ITS  LAWS.  117 

than  the  other  two.     These  characteristics  prevail  through  all 
the  various  modifications  of  contrast. 

363.  A  strong  contrast  may  be  modified,  still  preserving  its 
truth  and  purity,  by  adding  to  the  primary  color,  on  which  it 
depends,  a  portion  of  the  secondary  color,  formed  by  the  min- 
gling of  the  other  two  primaries.     By  this  means,  a  combina- 
tion of  colors  sometimes   gains  in  depth  and  richness,  what  it 
loses  in  force  and  brilliancy. 

364.  Law  of  harmony. — Some  subjects,  from  their  character, 
will   not   allow  of  the  life  and   gaiety  of  contrasting  colors. 
Therefore,  that  effect  must  be  destroyed,  and  the  whole  combi- 
nation  modified  by  the  colors  being  brought  into  harmony, 
which  is  done  by  mingling  the  tone-color  of  the  composition 
with  every  other  introduced. 

365.  Suppose,  for  instance,  red  to  be  the  tone-color  contrasted 
with  green.     Add  red  to  the  green,  harmony  is  then  produced, 
and  the  life  of  the  contrast  destroyed.     If  blue  exists  as  an  ac- 
companiment to  the  green,  add  red  to  the  blue.     If  yellow  is 
introduced  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  red,  add  red  to  the 
yellow.     This  mingling  of  the  tone-color  with  every  other  one 
used,  destroys  all  contrast,  and  reduces  the  whole  composition 
to  perfect  harmony. 

366.  Tints. — White  and  black  are  the  representatives  of  light 
and  darkness,  and,  in  relation  to  art,  are  considered  as  the  modi- 
fiers of  colors.     For  instance,  let  us  take  a  portion  of  pure  red, 
and  add  white  to  it,  we  then  have  a  tint  of  that  color ;  add  more 
white,  and  we  have  another  tint ;  and  so  on,  until  a  perfect 
gradation  is  formed,  even  to  the  extreme  light. 

367.  Shades. — Take  another  portion  of  red,  and  add  black  to 
it,  we  then  have  red,  and  a  shade  of  red ;  by  adding  more  black, 
another  shade  is  produced.     In  this  manner,  shades  are  formed 
in  true  gradation  to  the  extreme  dark.     This  may  be  illustrated 
by  a  red  ball,  as  in  light  and  shade. 

368.  Hues. — Let  the  student  take  a  portion  of  the  secondary 
colors,  and  place  them  in  the  same  manner  as  the  primaries,  in 
a  circular  row.     Then,  by  combining  any  two  of  the  secondary 


118  STUDY  OF  ART. 

colors,  he  will  produce  a  modified  color,  properly  called  a  hue. 
In  this  way,  he  will  obtain  three  hues,  called  primary.  Then, 
take  a  portion  of  any  two  of  these  hues,  and  combine  them  in 
the  same  manner,  he  will  produce  secondary  hues.  In  the  pri- 
mary hues,  the  force  that  characterizes  pure  colors  is  destroyed. 
In  the  secondary  hues,  color  becomes  more  neutralized ;  still, 
the  hue  is  clear  and  pure,  and  this  purity  is  essential  to  good 
coloring.  It  is  only  this  guiding  principle  of  combination  that 
will  secure  the  purity  and  transparency  of  color,  which  is  an  in- 
dispensable requisite  in  this  beautiful  department  of  art. 

369.  Tone  of  color. — The  character  of  color  is  defined  by  the 
word  tone,  which  is  applied  either  to  a  simple  color  or  a  combi- 
nation of  colors.     For  instance,  we  say  of  a  picture  :  It  has  a 
dull  tone ;  or,  a  brilliant  tone,  a  clear  tone,  a  gay  tone,  a  sub- 
dued tone.     Every  proper  arrangement  of  colors,  or  composi- 
tion of  colors,  has  its  prevailing  tone.     That  is,  one  color  which 
controls  all  those  with  which  it  is  associated.     This  color  gives 
character  to  the  whole  picture.     Its  ascendancy  is  preserved  by 
keeping  in  due  subordination  every  hue,  tint  and  shade  intro- 
duced.    On  this,  depends  the  unity  and  harmony  of  the  work  as 
a  whole.     The  tone  of  color  is  given  to  nature  by  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmosphere.     In  a  cold  atmosphere,  blues  will  pre- 
dominate.     In  a  warm  atmosphere,  the  colors  and  hues  will 
exhibit  more  red  and  yellow. 

370.  Degradation. — In  coloring,  this  aerial  effect  that  ex- 
presses distance,  is  termed  degradation,  or  keeping ;  and,  ac- 
cording to  this  principle  found  in  nature,  color  must  not  be 
changed,  or  destroyed,  in  the  distance,  but  subdued  just  in  pro- 
portion as  objects  recede  from  the  fore-ground.     If  the  distance 
is  obscured,  the  eye  is  never  satisfied.     Therefore,  the  artist 
should  leave  no  doubt  as  to  how  his  back-ground  is  occupied. 
He  sometimes  hides  it,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  beyond  the  reach 
of  his  shade,  and,  for  the  same  reason,  paints  hollow  drapery, 
from  his  utter  inability  to  draw  a  figure.     If  he  paints  for  the 
ignorant  only,  this  subterfuge  may  conceal  the  poverty  of  his 


COLOR  AND  ITS  LAWS.  119 

skill;   but   the   better   educated   will   detect   his   trick    at   a 
glance,  (j) 

371.  For  the  working  of  coiors,  no  very  definite  rules  can  be 
given.     The  practice  of  the  painter  must  be  founded  on  the  prin- 
ciples of  light,  shade  and  color,  as  heretofore  laid  down.    Success 
depends  upon  the  right  observance  of  rules.    That  is,'they  must 
not  be  disregarded,  neither  should  they  be  followed  mechanical- 
ly.    The  judgment  and  mental  ability  of  the  artist,  which  no 
rules  can  supply,  will  decide  his  success. 

372.  "  Benjamin  West  was  led  to  try  the  effect  of  painting, 
in  the  first  place,  with  the  pure  primary  colors,  and  softening 
them  afterwards  with  the  semi-tints  ;  and  the  result  confirmed 
him  in  the  notion  that  such  was  probably  the  peculiar  method 
of  Titian.     But,  although  this  idea  was  suggested  by  his  visits 
to  the  collections  of  Venice,  he  was  not  perfectly  satisfied  with 
its  soundness  as  a  rule,  till  many  years  after  his  arrival  in  Lon- 
don, and  many  unsuccessful  experiments." 

373.  The  direction  given   by  Washington  Allston  was   to 
paint  the  face  at  a  sitting.     One  advantage  of  this  practice  is, 
that  the  expression  is  not  so  liable  to  be  of  a  mixed  character. 
If  the  artist  is  painting  a  portrait,  he,  in  this  mode  of  practice, 
secures  the  likeness  before  there  is  any  change  in  the  mood  of 
the  sitter.     If  an  ideal  picture,  he  has  in  his  mind  his  concep- 
tion of  his  subject,  and,  before  that  is  lost,  or  changed  by  delay, 
he  impresses  it  upon  the  canvas.     The  great  advantage  of  this 
practice,  in  regard  to  execution,  is  an  intermingling  of  the  va- 
rious colors  on  the  canvas,  by  which  the  effect  of  nature  is  more 
nearly  approached,  and  more  easily  obtained.     This  can  be 
done  with  the  brush  on  the  canvas,  as  it  cannot  be  done  with 
the  knife  on  the  palette.     Allston  said  to  a  young  artist :  "  Set 
your  palette,  and  your  hand  will  find  the  colors."     To  me,  he 
gave  the  direction  :  "  Paint  the  face  at  a  sitting."     Upon  which 
I  practiced  successfully.     If  a  hand  were  introduced  in  the 
picture,  it  was  accomplished  at  another  sitting,  and  this,  I  believe 


120  STUDY  OF  ART. 

to  be  the  best  practice.     It  was  also  Gilbert  Stewart's  method, 
whose  portraits  were  charmingly  natural  and  life-like. 

374.  In  the  various  color  books,  directions  are  carefully  given 
for  dead  coloring,  ground  work,  etc.,  the  excellence  of  which  the 
artist  may  test,  or,  what  is  still  better,  find  out  a  method  for 
himself.  Every  master,  no  doubt,  had  some  way  peculiar  to 
himself,  which,  if  known,  would  explain  the  secret  of  his  surface, 
and  which,  perhaps,  he  could  not  himself  have  clearly  defined  to 
a  fellow  artist.  A  general  direction  of  Allston's  was  to  make 
light  red,  suiting  the  tint  used  to  the  tone  of  the  subject,  the 
ground  into  which  all  other  colors  were  worked,  until  the  right 
effect  is  obtained.  This  is  the  only  method  of  practice  by  which 
the  appearance  of  life,  that  ever  belongs  to  vitality,  can  be  truly 
imitated,  and  which  no  artist  will  be  likely  to  secure  by  en- 
deavoring to  penetrate  what  he  considers  the  secrets  of  a  mas- 
ter's practice.  Let  each  one  have  his  own  secrets  in  execution, 
and,  if  true  to  nature  and  his  colors,  he  cannot  fail  to  secure  a 
pleasing  effect. 

375.  The  greatest  artists,  both  painters  and  sculptors,  have, 
in  the  execution  of  their  wrorks,  evidently  been  governed  by  the 
principle  that  all  objects  found  in  nature  are  clear  and  distinct, 
both  in  form  and  color ;  and  that  the  effect  of  the  atmosphere  is 
to  soften  the  lines,  and  subdue  the  colors,  so  that  all  that  meets 
the  eye  in  a  single  view  is  rendered  harmonious  and  pleasing  as 
a  whole.  Their  skill,  guided  by  this  principle,  enabled  them  to 
give  just  the  strength  and  force  required  for  the  right  effect  of 
their  work,  when  seen  at  its  true  distance.  The  weak  and 
ignorant,  on  the  contrary,  depend  upon  pleasing  the  eye,  by  the 
most  minute  detail,  and  labored  finish.  With  this  finish,  there 
can  be  no  true  surface.  Nothing  to  mark  the  individuality  of 
the  work.  Nothing  to  stamp  it  as  the  production  of  any  one 
artist.  It  exhibits  only  the  finish  of  great  mechanical  labor,  and 
any  patient  hand  can  attain  the  same  degree  of  skill.  It  re- 
quires no  head,  and  people  of  the  least  intellect  will  the  most 
excel  in  it. 


COLOR  AND   ITS   LAWS.  121 

376.  The  skill  to  give  the  right  surface,  to  which  the  atmos- 
phere will  add  the  effect  required,  depends  no  less  upon  the 
judgment,  matured  by  experience,  than  upon  native  power  and 
genius.     The  great  point  is,  for  the  artist,  to  leave  off  just  where 
the  atmosphere  can  blend  and  harmonize  the  whole  work,  with- 
out destroying  its  life  and  spirit.    To  those  who  are  ignorant  of 
the  requisites  of  art,  this  is  not  quite  clear.     To  those  who  un- 
destand  the  subject,  the  distinct  stroke  and  decided  touch  that 
characterize  the  work,  are  evidences  of  original  and  powerful 
thought,  as  well  as  masterly  execution.     Such  work  is  the  re- 
mote  opposite  of   the  labored  finish,  peculiar  to  mechanical 
skill,  and  those  who  truly  enjoy  the  one,  can  take  little  pleasure 
in  the  other.     When  a  work  of  art  is  well  accomplished,  the 
pleasing  effect  produced  absorbs  all  attention,  and  the  surface 
remains  unobserved,  until  the  spectator  scrutinizes  the  picture, 
for  the  purpose   of  deciding  whether  it  is  by  the  hand  of 
Raffaelle,  or  Titian,  or  Rembrandt,  as  it  appears  at  first  sight ;  or 
only  a  successful  imitation  of  one  of  those  masters.     Amateurs, 
familiar  with  their  style  of  coloring,  may  be  deceived.     Those 
who  have  studied  their  surface,  or  execution,  never. 

377.  The  number  of  painters  who   have  excelled  in  this 
beautiful  department  of  art  is  very  few.     It  is  said  that  during 
the  last  three  hundred  years,  not  more  than  eight  or  ten  masters 
have  been  good  colorists.     This  has  been  attributed  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  establishing  rules  for  every  variety  of  color  and  hue. 
Perhaps  it  is  because  an  appreciation  of  the  beauty  of  color  de- 
pends upon  an  intuitive  perception,  with  which  few  are  gifted. 
Some  persons  have  no  eye  for  color,  as  others  have  no  ear  for 
music.    And  again,  much  depends  upon  education.    The  uncul- 
tivated taste  is  gratified  by  the  broad  and  dazzling  glare,  so 
distasteful  to  the  cultivated,  which,  in  its  refinement,  relishes 
the  subdued  and  mellow  tone  that  excites  a  more  quiet  and 
dreamy  pleasure.     The  softest  and  most  harmonious  tints  are 
those  on  which  the  eye  reposes  with  lingering  delight.     Their 
effect  on  the  eye  is  like  a  low,  soft  melody  upon  the  ear,  that 

6 


122  STUDY    OF   ART. 

steals  over  the  senses  with  the  power  of  enchantment.  And 
happy  the  artist  who  understands  this  magic  of  color ;  for,  by  a 
charmed  eye,  all  other  senses  are  carried  captive ;  and,  through 
this  medium,  he  commands  a  degree  of  attention  and  admiration 
that  yields  to  no  other  power  of  art. 


CHAPTER    X. 

EXPRESSION. 

378.  WE  have  now  considered  the  first  principles  of  art,  and 
find  that  they  include  a  knowledge  of  anatomy,  and  the  laws 
of  optics,  as  applied  to  perspective,  light,  and  shade,  and  color. 
A  knowledge  of  these  sciences  may  be  acquired  by  any  diligent 
student,  who  has  the  taste  to  pursue  them.     But,  if  he  stops 
here,  he  will  only  be  a  man  of  science.     To  succeed  as  an  art- 
ist, he  must  learn  the  more  general  and  abstract  principles  of 
nature,  on  the  application  of  which  his  success  so  much  depends. 
The  laws  of  science  furnish  the  basis  for  the  laws  of  imitation ; 
but  science  can  no  longer  be  the  only  guide  for  the  student  in 
art.     Success  depends  on  his  ability  to  finish  what  science  has 
begun.     Taste  now  dictates,  the  judgment  and  skill  modify  and 
improve,  and  finally,  the  artist's  own  spirit  must  inform  the 
work  of  his  hand.     Here  properly  begins  that  ideal  imitation, 
for  which  his  previous  studies  have  prepared  him. 

379.  Under  the  term  expression,  in  art,  is  intended  every- 
thing that  gives  character  to  a  work.     The  form,  countenance, 
attitude,  color,  must  all  be  treated  with  reference  to  expression. 

380.  Expression  is  both  definite  and  general.     It  belongs  to 
every  part  of  a  work,  and  stamps  its  value.     Correct  drawing 
is  considered  the  most  essential  requisite  of  art,  correct  expres- 
sion, the  highest  attainment.     The  first  is  the  foundation  of  all 
other  excellence,  and  is  more  easily  acquired.    The  second  adds 
completion  to  the  work,  and  demands  greater  abilities  and  ac- 
quirements.   The  outline  sketch  gives  the  foundation ;  embodies 


124:  STUDY  OF  ART. 

the  conception  of  the  artist.  From  that,  we  learn  his  intention 
or  design.  Light,  shade,  and  color  may  add  expression  and 
beauty  to  the  character  given  in  form,  but  cannot  redeem  its 
defects.  In  nature,  character  is  marked  by  the  bone  construc- 
tion, the  foundation  of  form,  and  it  must  be  the  same  in  all  imi- 
tations of  nature.  Proportion  is  as  essential  to  truth  of  charac- 
ter as  to  beauty  of  form.  "  The  difference  in  the  features  of 
various  individuals,  is  principally  owing  to  the  size  and  propor- 
tion of  the  bones  that  constitute  the  base  of  the  face.  Youth, 
age,  sickness,  health,  and  even  the  stronger  affections  of  the 
mind,  change  the  countenance ;  but  the  diversity  of  feature, 
marked  by  the  length,  breadth,  or  projection,  produces  the 
diversity  which  marks  the  countenances,  not  only  of  nations,  but 
of  individuals,  so  that  no  two  of  the  human  family  could  be 
found  who  were  precisely  alike." 

381.  Fuseli  remarks  that  "  Expression  principally  consists  in 
representing  the  human  body  and  all  its  parts  in  the  action  suit- 
able to  it ;  in  exhibiting  in  the  face  the  several  passions  proper 
to  the  figures,  and  marking  the  emotions  they  impress  on  the 
other  external  parts.     Frequently,  the  term  expression  is  con- 
founded with  that  of  passion ;  but  the  former  implies  a  repre- 
sentation of  an  object  agreeably  to  its  nature  and  character,  and 
the  use  or  office  it  is  intended  to  have  in  the  work.     Passion, 
in  painting,  denotes  a  motion  of  the  body  accompanied  with  cer- 
tain airs  of  the  face  which  mark  an  agitation  of  soul.     So  that 
every  passion  is  an  expression,  but  not  every  expression  a 
passion. 

382.  "It  is  important  to  distinguish  the  materials  and  the 
spirit  of  expression.     To  give  this,  one  must  be  a  master  of 
forms,  and  of  the  hues  that  embody  it.     Without  truth  of  line, 
no  true  expression  is  possible.  *  *  *  To   make  a  face  speak 
clearly  and  with  propriety,  it  must  not  only  be  well  constructed, 
but  have  its  own  exclusive  character.    Though  the  elements  of 
the  passions  be  the  same  in  all,  they  neither  speak  in  all  with 
equal  energy,  nor  are  circumscribed  by  equal  limits.     Though 
joy  be  joy,  and  anger  anger,  the  joy  of  the  sanguine  is  not  that 


EXPRESSION.  125 

of  the  phlegmatic ;  nor  the  anger  of  the  melancholy  that  of  the 
fiery  character;  and  the  discriminations  established  by  com- 
plexion are  equally  conspicuous  in  those  of  climate,  habit,  edu- 
cation and  rank." 

383.  Character,  with  its  infinite  variations,  and  multiplied 
forms  of  expression,  furnishes  the  artist  an  inexhaustible  sub- 
ject of  study.     Of  late  years,  the  study  of  phrenology  has  in 
some  degree  superseded  that  of  pathnogony,  much  to  the  detri- 
ment of  art.     'Tis  true,  the  form  of  the  head  is  very  important 
as  indicative  of  character ;  but  it  is  to  the  face  that  we  look  for 
the  ever-varying  emotions  of  the  mind,  and  for  the  expression 
of  those  pure   and  ennobling  sentiments  that  add  interest  to 
beauty,  and  invest  it  with  supreme  and  lasting  command.     The 
artist  who  would  excel  in  expression,  must  understand  the  phy- 
sical construction,  even  to  the  hair  and  complexion,  that  belongs 
to  the  temperament  of  his  subject. 

384.  By  the  temperament  is  meant  peculiar  faculties  and 
dispositions  of  mind  connected  with  the  predominance  of  certain 
portions  of  the  organism  over  others.     The  temperaments  are 
divided  into  five  different  kinds ;  the  athletic,  the  sanguine,  the 
lymphatic,  the  nervous,  and  the  bilious. 

385.  The  athletic  temperament  is  marked  by  a  predominance 
of  the  muscular   system,  intellect  feeble ;  sometimes,  scarcely 
existing.     The  skeleton  or  osseous  frame-work  solid,  and  the 
joints  large.     Specimens  of  this  temperament  are  not  rare,  and 
are  often  met  with  at  public  places  exhibiting  their  strength. 
In  these  Herculean  forms,  the  head  is  generally  small,  but  the 
temporal    and    masseter  muscles  are  large,  indicating  strong 
animal  instincts.    The  face  is  large  compared  with  the  cranium ; 
the  features  heavy  and  vulgar ;  the  eyes  without  expression, 
yet  sometimes  brilliant   and  ferocious ;    the  locks  and  beard 
abundant.     A  short  and  thick  neck  unites  the  head  to  a  trunk 
characterized  by  shoulders  and  chest  of  vast  proportions,  well 
covered  with  enormously  developed  muscles. 

386.  Hercules  is  often  erroneously  represented  with  a  heavy, 


126  STUDY   OF   ART. 

massive,  and  over-loaded  form.  Strength  does  not  depend 
solely  upon  weight  or  bulk,  but  also  upon  the  direction  given  to 
the  muscular  powers  by  the  quickness  and  address  of  the  per- 
ceptive faculities.  Hercules  was  represented  by  the  ancients  as 
assisting  Atlas  in  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  skies,  yet  they 
attributed  to  him  great  speed  and  activity. 

387.  The  athletic  temperament  is  characterized  by  the  pre- 
dominance of  the  muscular  system,  and  by  a  defective  intelli- 
gence, almost  wholly  replaced  by  animal  instincts.     This  tem- 
perament never  occurs  in  women,  however  great  their  strength. 

388.  In  the  sanguine  temperament,  the  form  is  rounded,  as 
in  woman;  and  frequently,  too  heavy.     The  skin  is  strongly 
colored  and  rosy,  especially  on  the  face,  which  is  rather  round 
than  oval.     Fair,  or  chestnut-colored  hair  overshadows  a  fore- 
head more  ample  than  in  the  athlete.     The  eyes  are  blue  or 
gray,  prominent,  rounded,  and  fully  open.     The  too  prominent 
cheeks  seem  occasionally  to  contract  the  orbits.     The  physiog- 
nomy partakes  of  the  general  character,  to  which  obesity  is 
often  added. 

389.  The  lymphatic  temperament  occurs  frequently  in  the 
female  sex.     It  has  for  its  character  a  dull,  or  dead- white  skin, 
of  a  fine  tissue,  and  marked  by  a  net-work  of  blue  veins.     The 
contours  are  rounded  but  the  tissues  are  deficient  in  firmness ; 
at  times,  a  certain  morbid  air  pervades  the  appearance,  and  the 
whole  has  a  doughy  look.     Persons  of  this  temperament  have 
generally  fair  hair  and.  blue  eyes  ;  a  rosy  tint  adds  transparency 
to  their  coloring.     The  intellectual   faculties  present  nothing 
peculiar. 

390.  With  the   nervous  temperament,  the  physiognomy  is 
restless,  and  movable;  the  look  pale  and  languid;  the  eyes 
generally  black,  and  vivid;  the  hair  brown  or  black,  and  the 
superficial  veins  prominent.     The  skin  is  transparent  and  the 
muscular  system  not  remarkable  for  strength.   The  nervous  man 
has  an  exalted  and  quick  imagination,  is  disposed  to  melancholy 
and  exhibits  ardent  passion. 

391.  Men  of  the  bilious  temperament  have  a  brownish  color, 


EXPRESSION.  127 

thin,  elongated  visage  ;  eyes  and  hair  brown ;  the  superciliary 
ridges  prominent ;  bushy  eyebrows ;  the  look  penetrating ;  the 
nose  straight  or  aquiline ;  lips  thin  and  pale ;  the  body  firm, 
and  as  it  were  dry ;  skin  of  a  brownish  tinge.  To  an  intellect 
equaling  the  nervous  temperament,  the  bilious  adds  great  per- 
severance, overcoming  obstacles  by  a  most  persevering  resist- 
ance ;  occasionally  cruel,  and  generally  a  prey  to  an  insatiate 
ambition. 

392.  These  are  the  simple  temperaments  which  are  the  most 
rare.      The   compound   temperaments   are   formed   when   the 
simple  unite  and  counterbalance  each  other  in  the  same  individ- 
ual.    When  no  one  temperament  predominates,  the  character  is 
indecisive. 

393.  No  department  is  more  difficult,  or  requires  more  care- 
ful study  than  the  expression  belonging  to  temperament.     In 
the  first  place,  the  physical  conformation  and  complexion  are 
determined  by  the  temperament — or  rather,  both  are  in  har- 
mony with  it.     Then  the  attitudes  and  actions  proceeding  from 
the  natural  impulse  of  feeling  and  character,  indicate  the  tem- 
perament.   Truth  to  nature  requires,  that  the  form,  complexion, 
and  attitude  should  all  be  in  keeping,  or  the  expression  in  one, 
will  contradict  the  character  indicated  in  another.     The  infinite 
variations  of  action  and  attitude,  like  the  infinite  variations  of 
feature  in  the  human  countenance,  mark  individuality. 

394.  "  Lavater  told  Goethe,  that  on  a  certain  occasion,  he 
held  the  church-bag  for  the  collection  of  offerings  from  the 
people,  when  he  tried  to  observe  only  the  hands,  and  satisfied 
himself  that  in  every  individual,  the  shape  of  the  fingers  and 
hand,  and  the  action  expressive  of  the  feeling  in  dropping  the 
gift,  were,  in  each  one,  distinctly  different  and  characteristic." 

395.  Of  this  peculiarity  of  individual  muscular  movement, 
any  person  may  satisfy  himself,  by  observing  at  the  church 
door,  on  a  Sabbath  day,  how  every  man  as  he  enters  uncovers 
his  head.     Here  all  meet  together  for  the  ostensible  object  of 
public  worship,  in  an  edifice  set  apart  by  common  consent  for 
sacred  purposes.     Yet,  the  action  of  no  two  persons  will  mani- 

5* 


128  STUDY   OF  ART. 

fest  precisely  the  same  state  of  feeling  on  entering  a  house 
dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the  one  true  God,  in  whom  each 
one  professes  to  believe. 

396.  The  same  individual  difference  may  be  observed  in  the 
step  of  the  foot.     No  two  are  alike,  so  that  the  approach  of  a 
person  is  often  distinctly  and  surely  announced  to  the  accustomed, 
listening  ear.    The  foot  is  only  changed  from  its  habitual  action  by 
an  excited  state  of  feeling,  or  when  its  movement  is  controlled 
by  the  fear  of  detection.     If  we  observed  the  feet  as  much  as 
the  hands,  we  should,  no  doubt,  find  that  the  motions  peculiar 
to  them  are  decidedly  expressive  of  the  general  temperament, 
and  that  their  action  regulates  the  gait  of  the  figure,  which  is 
ever  indicative  of  character. 

397.  The  expression  of  passion  varies  in  different  individuals. 
"  Some  weep  from  anger— others  for  tenderness  and  j  oy,  or  for 
suspicion.     Some  for  real  pain  and  torment ;  whilst  others  weep 
through  compassion  or  grief.     These  different  feelings  will  be 
expressed   by  some  with   marks  of  despair ;   by  others  with 
moderation :  some  only  shed  tears ;  others  cry  aloud ;  another 
has  his  face  turned  towards  heaven,  wringing  his  hands — each 
according  to  his  different  temperament." 

398.  Nature  is  the  only  true  field  for  the  study  of  tempera- 
ments.    Little  more  can  be  done  for  the  student  than  to  define 
the  characteristics  that  mark  the  simple  temperaments.     The 
ability  to  distinguish  the  various  shades  of  character,  from  the 
strongest  to  the  most  delicate,  that  belong  to  the  compound  tem- 
peraments, depends  upon  his  powers  of  perception,  of  discrimi- 
nation, and  of  appreciation.     The  judgment  is  matured,  and 
skill  acquired,  only  by  laborious  and  long  continued  observation 
and  study. 

399.  "  In  delineating  the  effects  of  passion,  it  is  necessary  to 
remember  that  passionate  excitement  produces  more  or  less 
effect  upon   the  whole  figure.     If  one  hand  is  clenched,  it  is 
unnatural  for  the  other  to  hang  listlessly  by  the  side.     When 
the  face  is  stern  and  vindictive,  the  whole  frame  exhibits  more 
or  less  energy,  and  right  expression  of  the  whole  requires 


EXPRESSION.  129 

attention  to  every  part :  not  only  to  each  figure,  but  the  group- 
ing, invention,  etc.  If  the  scene  requires  strong  expression,  the 
outline  should  be  free,  the  light  bold  and  clear,  and  the  coloring 
vivid.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  expression  of  strong  feeling 
and  passion  is  not  limited  in  delineation,  it  will  either  appear 
theatrical  or  exaggerated,  and  have  an  unpleasant  effect.  To 
give  just  enough,  requires  the  exercise  of  taste  and  judgment, 
for  the  force  of  expression  must  be  in  keeping  with  the  charac- 
ters, and  in  proportion  to  the  occasion  and  the  subject  repre- 
sented." 

400.  The  artist  must  thoroughly  understand  the  muscles  of 
the  face,  and  the  position  of  each  one  that  is  called  into  action, 
to  express  the  different  passions  or  emotions  excited.     He  must 
then  study  nature  where  he  finds  integrity  of  nature ;  not  where 
expression  is  restrained  by  conventional  forms  of  propriety,  or 
studied  concealment. 

401.  True  expression  has  but  one  source — the  natural  im- 
pulse of  irrepressible   emotion.      A  correct  imitation  of  the 
muscles  thus  excited  to  action,  will  secure  an  interest  in  the 
character  represented.     As  a  substitute  for  this  natural  action, 
an  artist  may  dictate,  either  to  a  laughing  or  a  crying  subject, 
and  the  muscles  obey  the  will  of  the  sitter.     If  he  then  faith- 
fully copies  the  effect  produced,  as  he  would  be  likely  to  do,  he 
will  exhibit  a  disgusting  picture  of  heartless  affectation. 

402.  It  is  said  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  that,  when  he  chanced 
to  see  a  man  with  an  expression  of  character  that  he  wished  to 
make  use  of  in  his  work,  he  would  follow  him  until  he  was  able 
to  delineate  the  face  upon  the  canvas.    He  had,  as  it  were,  com- 
mitted the  expression  to  memory,  and  could  then  pourtray  it 
with  an  effect  of  life,  which  he  could  not  as  well  have  given 
with  the  sitter  before  him.  (  k ) 

403.  The  old  Dutch  and  Flemish  painters  must  have  follow- 
ed the  same  practice.     True,  they  preferred  uncultivated  nature 
to  refined  and  polished  life,  and  were  evidently  guided  by  the 
principle  that  nothing  of  a  medium  character  excites  decided 
interest.     It  must  be  rough  nature  in  its  true  simplicity,  or  ex- 

6* 


130  STUDY   OF  ART. 

treme  refinement  with  its  polished  grace.  The  most  cultivated 
and  refined  may  appreciate  the  power  and  beauty  of  a  strong, 
uncultivated  character,  and  enjoy  it  also,  provided  it  is  simple 
and  true  to  nature. 

404.  The  most  uncultivated,  too,  admire  the  polish  and  grace 
of  refinement,  if  it  is  so  incorporated  with  the  character  as  not 
to  destroy  its  native  simplicity.     A  medium  degree  of  refine- 
ment, the  boor  will  pass  by  unheeded.     The  affectation  of  it,  he 
will  detect  at  a  glance,  while  the  gentle  grace  that  it  adds  to 
native  strength  and  dignity,  fails  not  to  command  his  homage. 

405.  "  All  variations  of  expression  depend  on  the  muscles, 
which  are  excited  to  action  by  the  emotions  of  the  mind,  as  in 
mirth,  admiration,  anger,  joy,  sorrow,  sadness,  fear,  pain.     In 
aiming  to  give  to  the  features  a  right  expression,  the  muscles 
of  the  temples,  eyes,  and  brows,  must  be  carefully  observed. 

406.  "  The  angle  of  the  mouth  has  great  power  of  expression. 
In  cheerful  emotions,  as  laughter,  smiling,  etc.,  the  angles  are 
pulled  upwards.     In  fear,  pride,  hatred,  revenge,  disgust,  con- 
tempt, consciousness  of  power,  the  corners  of  the  mouth  are 
drawn  downwards.      The  union  of  so  many  muscles  at  the 
angles  of  the  lips,  produces  that  fullness  about  the  mouth,  re- 
markable in  those  who  are  thin  and  muscular.     In  the  child,  or 
youth,  whose  face  is  plump,  they  make  the  dimple  in  the  cheek. 
The  orbicularis  is  the  opponent  of  all  the  muscles  which  are 
concentrated  from  various  points  to  the  lips ;  and  it  is  by  the 
successive  action  and  relaxation  of  these  antagonistic  muscles 
that  so  much  and  so  varied  expression  is  given  to  the  mouth. 

407.  "  This  circular  muscle,  which  has  no  origin,  and  goes 
entirely  round  the  mouth,  is  affected  in  various  emotions.     It 
tremblingly  yields  to  the  superior  force  of  its  counteracting 
muscles,  both  in  joy  and  in  grief.      It  relaxes  pleasantly  in 
smiling.     It  is  drawn  down  more  powerfully  by  its  opponent 
muscles  in  weeping.     This  is  the  largest  and  strongest  muscle 
of  the  face  :  it  antagonizes  all  the  rest ;  shuts  the  mouth,  and, 
from  an  opening  as  wide  as  the  mouth  can  require,  it  shuts  it  at 
pleasure,  so  closely,  as  to  retain  the  breath  against  all  the  force 


EXPRESSION.  131 

of  the  lungs.  It  is  the  true  antagonist  of  all  the  other  muscles  ; 
yet.  it  acts  mutually  with  them,  in  opening  and  shutting  the 
mouth. 

408.  "  The  bones  determine  the  general  form  of  the  face  ;  one 
great  muscle,  the  masseter,  gives  the  rounding  of  the  cheek ; 
the  rest  are  delicate  and  movable  muscles,  and  the  character  of 
the  face  centres  round  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  where  those 
muscles  converge.     A  thin  and  delicate  face  gains  in  expres- 
sion where  the  cheek  is  hollow,  and  at  the  angle  of  the  mouth, 
where  the  lines  are  strong.     In  a  full  face,  these  lines  are 
obliterated,  and  the  delicate  turnings  of  thought  and  feeling 
are  lost.     All  but  the  more  violent  expressions  of  passion  are 
buried  in  the  mass.     The  great  lines  of  character  are  the  lines 
of  the  zygomatic  muscle,  coming  from  above,  and  of  the  trian- 
gular muscle,  coming  from  the  chin;  and  the  moving  point 
towards  which  they  all  act,  is  the  corner  of  the  mouth. 

409.  "  In  cheerful  emotions,  they  all  rise  towards  the  eye, 
which  becomes  full  and  distended.     In  the  depressing  passions, 
the  features  sink,  the  eye  is  languid,  and  the  whole  countenance 
has  a  serious,  thoughtful  cast.     Still  the  corner  of  the  mouth  is 
the  central  point  of  all  these  changes. 

410.  "  The  corners  of  the  mouth  are  continually  supported  by 
the  action   of  the   zygomatic   muscles.     They  are   raised   in 
smiling,  so  as  to  form  a  dimple.     In  laughter,  they  are  raised 
still  higher,  so  as  to  swell  the  cheek,  wrinkle  the  eye-lids,  and 
compress  the  eyes,  till  the  tears  begin  to  flow.     The  corner  of 
the  mouth  that  is  thus  raised  in  laughter,  is  distorted  in  pride, 
and  drawn  backward  in  rage,  drops  lower  in  grief,  and,  in 
palsy,  falls  quite  down. 

411.  "  These  various  movements  round  the  angle  of  the  mouth 
are  the  chief  indications  of  passion  in  the  face,  and  other  indica- 
tions proceed  from  the  general  system.     A  healthy  body  and 
cheerful  mind  have  the  face  full,  the  eye  full,  the  back  braced, 
and  the  whole  body  in  an  active  and  excited  condition.     But 
when  the  heart  beats  languid  in  grief,  or  palpitates  in  fear,  the 
face  becomes  pale,  the  features  sink,  the  limbs  tremble,  the 


132  STUDY   OF  ART. 

whole  frame  is  cold,  unbraced,  and  disinclined  to  motion.  From 
these  general  conditions  of  the  system,  proceed  all  those  other 
marks  of  passion  which  accompany  the  changes  of  the  face ;  for, 
in  grieij  fear,  and  despair,  the  blood  ebbs,  the  face  is  pale,  and 
the  features  sink.  While  in  anger,  the  face  is  red,  the  eye- 
brow contracted,  the  eye  dilated,  and  strained  towards  the  most 
violent  action.  The  breath  is  retained  while  the  pulse  beats 
high ;  therefore,  the  face  becomes  swollen ;  the  eye  is  fiery  red ; 
there  is  a  grinding  of  the  teeth ;  the  angles  of  the  mouth  are 
strained  backwards;  the  nostrils  are  raised  and  dilated;  the 
zygomatic,  masseter,  and -temporal  muscles  are  in  violent  ac- 
tion, which  gives  an  angular  and  lineal  hardness  to  all  the 
features,  and  saliva  and  foam  proceed  from  the  universal  pres- 
sure upon  the  glands." 

412.  Color,  by  its  variations,  heightens  expression,  and  im- 
parts animation  to  the  face.     Charles  Bell  says  :  "  The  sudden 
flushing  of  the  countenance,  in  blushing,  belongs  to  expression, 
as  one  of  the  many  sources  of  sympathy  that  bind  us  together. 
This  suffusion  serves  no  purpose  of  the  economy,  whilst  we 
must  acknowledge  the  interest  which  it  excites  as  an  indication 
of  mind.     It  adds  perfection  to  the  features  of  beauty. 

413.  "  The  color  which  attends  exertion,  or  the  violent  pas- 
sions, as  of  rage,  arises  from  general  vascular  excitement,  and 
differs  from  blushing.    Blushing  is  too  sudden  and  too  partial  to 
be  traced  to  the  heart's  action.     That  it  is  a  provision  for  ex- 
pression, may  be  inferred  from  the  color  extending  only  to  the 
surface  of  the  face,  neck,  and  breast,  the  parts  most  exposed. 
It  is  not  acquired  :  it  is  from  the  beginning.     It  is  unlike  the 
effect  of  powerful,  depressing  emotions,  which  influence  the 
whole  body.     The  sudden  conviction  of  the  criminal  is  felt  in 
every  pore ;  but  the  color  caused  by  blushing  gives  brilliancy 
and  interest  to  the  expression  of  the  face.     In  this,  we  perceive 
an  advantage  possessed  by  the  fair  family  of  mankind,  and 
which  must  be  lost  to  the  dark ;  for  I  can  hardly  believe  that  a 
blush  may  be  seen  in  the  Negro.     We  think  of  blushes  as  ac- 


EXPRESSION.  133 

companying  shame ;  but  it  is  indicative  of  excitement.  There 
is  no  shame  when  lively  feeling  makes  a  timid  youth  break 
through  the  restraint  which  modesty  and  reserve  have  imposed. 
It  is  becoming  in  youth,  it  is  seemly  in  more  advanced  years  in 
women.  Blushing  assorts  well  with  youthful  and  with  effemi- 
nate features,  whilst  nothing  is  more  hateful  than  a  dog-face 
that  exhibits  no  token  of  sensibility  in  the  variations  of  color." 

414.  Every  thing  that  enters  into  a  composition  of  art,  with- 
out being  indispensably  necessary,  is  called  an  accessory.     In  a 
historical  picture,  the  principal  figures  are  sometimes  sufficient 
to  tell  the  story,  or  to  express  the  idea  that  the  artist  intends  to 
convey.     The  rest  included  are  accessories,  and  belong  to  ex- 
pression. 

415.  Every  character,  and  every  scene  has  its  appropriate 
accessories,  as  poetry  its   appropriate  similes,  and,    if  these 
are  well   selected,  the  whole  costume  of  the  picture  will  be 
harmonious  with  the  subject.     If  the  accessories  introduced  are 
too  many  and  too  remote,  the  picture  will  be  wanting  in  simpli- 
city.    On  the  contrary,  if  they  are  so  familiar  as  to  leave  no- 
thing to  the  imagination,  it  will  be  wanting  in  character.    Some 
of  the  most  successful  painters  have  avoided  the  use  of  acces- 
sories, lest  they  should  divert  the  eye  from  the  principal  group. 

416.  "  Cespedes,  a  Spanish  painter  of  the  tune  of  Philip  II., 
painted  a  famous  picture  of  the  last  supper.     Palomino  extols 
the  beauty  and  dignity  of  the  Savior's  head,  and  the  masterly 
discrimination  of  character  displayed  in  those  of  the  apostles. 
To  the  jars  and  vases  in  the  fore-ground,  there  hangs  the  tale 
that,  while  the  picture  was  yet  on  the  easel,  these  accessories, 
by  their  exquisite  finish,  engaged  the  attention  of  some  visitors, 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  higher  parts  of  the  composition,  and  to 
the  great  disgust  of  the  artist. 

417.  "' Andres !' cried  he,  to  his  servant,  somewhat  testily, 
1  rub  me  out  these  things,  since,  after  all  my  care  and  study,  and 
amongst  so  many  figures,  hands  and  expressions,  people  choose 
to  see  nothing  but  these  iinpertinencies.'     And  much  entreaty 


134:  STUDY  OF  ART. 

and  properly  directed  admiration  was  needed  to  save  the  devoted 
pipkins  from  destruction." 

418.  Drapery  properly  classes  with  the  accessories ;  and,  as 
the  modern  artist  seldom  has  occasion  to  draw  the  nude  figure, 
it  is  indispensable  that  he  should  understand  draping  in  a  cor- 
rect manner. 

419.  It  was  the  opinion  of  Carlo  Maratti,  that  the  arrange- 
ment of  drapery  was  more  difficult  than  drawing  the  human 
figure,  because  the  right  effect  depends  more  upon  the  taste  of 
the  artist,  than  upon  any  given  rules. 

420.  Excellence,  in  this  branch  of  art,  depends  upon  the 
number,  size,  and  disposition  of  the  folds ;  for,  on  these,  depends 
the  grace  and  beauty  of  the  figure.     The  folds  should  be  large 
and  few  in  number,  because  large  folds  produce  masses  of  light 
and  shade ;  while  small  ones,  by  multiplying  the  objects  of  view, 
disturb  the  attention.     If  the  quality  of  the  drapery  requires 
small  folds,  they  should  be  so  distributed  as  to  form  a  mass 
equal  to  one  principal  fold.     Then  they  must  be  fully  relieved 
by  light  and  shade,  or  they  lose  their  effect. 

421.  For  the  arrangement  of  the  drapery,  a  few  general  rules 
may  be  given.    First :  the  drapery  must  be  so  disposed  as  to  fit 
the  figure,  and  not  conceal  it. 

422.  Second :  in  a  composition  of  many  figures,  care  must  be 
taken  to  vary  the  size  and  quantity  of  the  folds. 

423.  Third:  folds   of   draperies   should   appear   principally 
where  they  are  held  on  by  the  hands  and  arms  of  the  figures, 
and  the  rest  left  to  fall  with  ease  and  simplicity.     Where  the 
figure  is  fore-shortened,  more  folds  are  required  than  on  the 
other  parts. 

424.  Fourth :  the  folds  of  draperies  should  be  so  disposed  as 
to  preserve  the  true  proportion  of  the  figure,  and  leave  no  doubt 
in  regard  to  its  position. 

425.  Fifth :  the  casts  of  the  folds,  in  the  several  draperies, 
must  be  in  keeping  with  the  attitude  of  the  figure  represented. 
If  it  is  in  action,  they  must  contribute  spirit  and  energy.     If 
it  is  in  quiet  repose,  they  must  be  suited  to  that  attitude. 


EXPRESSION. 


135 


426.  Sixth :  great  spirit  and  force  may  be  obtained  by  the 
precipitate  opposition  of  the  lights  and  shades  in  the  close  and 
deep  folds,  and  grace,  breadth  and  harmony  by  those  more 
ample  and  extended.  Opportunities  are  everywhere  afforded 
of  breaking  all  unavoidably  rectangular,  or  other  too  definite 
and  regular  appearances  by  the  beautiful  and  variegated  angles 
that  are  formed  between  the  origin  and  more  dispersed  parts  of 
the  folds. 


>Tr-^  '* 

>•  ^— v  *'. 

Library. 

Califor^*: 


CHAPTER    XI. 

COMPOSITION. 

427.  IN  pursuing  the  subject  thus  far,  we  have  learned  that 
form,  light  and  shade,  color,  and  accessories,  are  to  the  painter, 
as  language  to  the  poet.     Success  with  either,  requires  that 
each  one  should,  first,  master  the  elements  of  his  chosen  lan- 
guage, and  then  compose  according  to  the  rules  and  require- 
ments of  his  peculir  art.     By  learning  the  physical  laws  of 
nature,  the  artist  has  prepared  himself  in  the  essential  elements  of 
imitation.     But  nature  imposes  her  laws  in  every  department 
of  art.     To  reach  the  mind,  to  which  his  work  is  addressed,  he 
must  acquaint  himself  with  the  laws  that  govern  its  emotions, 
and  of  the  impression  it  receives  through  the  medium  of  the 
senses. 

428.  On  this  point,  De  Quincy  says  :  "  The  different  faculties 
defined  as  reason,  understanding,  imagination,  etc.,  exist  in  all 
minds,  though  in  different  degrees ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  no 
one  of  these  faculties  can  be  substituted  for  another.      For 
instance,  the  perception  of  the  understanding  is  not  the  exerr 
cise  of  the  imagination ;  neither  will  the  memory  take  the  place 
of  the  reason  ;  and  all  the  imitative  arts  must  be  in  some  rela- 
tion, either  to  the  perceptive,  the  imaginative,  or  the  reasoning 
faculties.     Every  true  work  of  imitation  is  more  or  less  allied 
to  the  laws  of  the  mind. 

429.  "  Tragical  scenes  excite  terror  and  pity.     Therefore, 
if  the  artist  represents  a  tragical  scene,  he  must  aim  to  excite 
these  emotions.     Comic  scenes,  on  the  contrary,  excite  mirth 


COMPOSITION.  137 

and  malice,  and  to  reach  these  emotions,  he  must  choose  a 
different  scene  that  requires  a  representation  directly  opposite. 

430.  "  The  mind  is  capable  of  very  sudden  transition ;  still, 
its  receiving  two  distinct  impressions  at  the  same  time  is  morally 
impossible ;  for,  if  an  artist  attempts  to  make  two  distinct  im- 
pressions, his  work  will  have  the  effect  of  two  distinct  pictures. 
And  this  divided  attention  will,  of  necessity,  destroy  all  force  of 
impression.    If  one  contradicts  the  other,  the  effect  is  displeasing 
The  artist  must  never  lose  sight  of  this  law  of  unity ;  for  on 
this,  more  than  on  any  other,  depends  the  pleasing  effect  of  his 
work. 

431.  "  The  unity  of  the  mind  is  one  of  those  truths  whose 
demonstration  we  readily  find  within  ourselves.      It  is   every 
instant  revealed  to  us  by  the  relations  of  its  action  ;  and  the 
very  relations  of  our  senses  with  that  action,  furnish  us  proofs 
without  end.     Every  one  of  our  senses  tells  us  that  it  cannot 
receive  simultaneous  impressions  from  several  causes  at  once. 
In  fact,  no  two  senses  can  be  actively  employed  at  the  same 
time ;  nor  can  any  single  one  be  strongly  affected  at  the  very 
same  instant  by  several  or  even  by  only  two  sensations.     I  say 
actively  because,  in  truth,  all  our  senses  are  endowed  with  an 
active  and  a  passive  principle,  and  it  is  by  the  effect  of  this 
double  quality  that  we  are  enabled  to  see  at  one  and  the  same 
time  two  objects  distant  from  each  other.     There  is,  however, 
in  such  a  case,  a  great  difference  between  the  manner  in  which 
each  is  viewed.     One  only  is  seen  intuitively,  and  one  atten- 
tively regarded.     We  hear  several  sounds,  but  can  listen  only  to 
one. 

432.  "  The  action  of  the  mind  frequently  gives  rise  to  illusion, 
and  the  rapidity  of  that  action  is  the  cause  of  its  movement  not 
being  distinctly  comprehended.  The  mind  glances  rapidly  over 
the  objects  presented  to  it,  and  passes  with  so  much  celerity 
from  one  sensation  to  another,  that  its  operations  appear  simul- 
taneous, while,  in  fact,  they  are  successive.  Thus,  it  appears  to 
apprehend,  by  one  and  the  same  intuitive  act,  both  the  form  of 
a  body,  and  the  color  with  which  that  form  is  invested ;  but  it 

6* 


138  STUDY  OF  ART. 

can  only  enjoy  one  after  the  other,  the  impressions  produced  by 
the  form  and  by  the  color.  It  is  one  thing  for  the  mind  to 
receive  impressions,  and  another  to  make  them  its  own.  Per- 
ception may  be  rapid,  but  it  requires  attention  to  profit  by  it. 
It  is  also  worthy  of  remark  that  this  rapid  transition,  of  which 
the  mind  is  capable,  seldom  takes  place,  but  with  regard  to 
objects  that  are  indifferent  to  it,  trivial  ideas,  or  feeble  sensa- 
tions. 

433.  "Whatever  goes  to  prove  the  unity  of  the  action  of  the 
mind,  and  the  impossibility  of  its  being  so  divided  as  to  be 
occupied  by  two  sensations,  equally  tends  to  establish  the  law 
of  unity  in  imitation,  whether  considered  generally  as  regards 
the  respective  properties  of  the  several  acts,  or,  the  elements 
of  which  an  individual  act  is  composed. 

434.  "  Every  one  will  allow  that  unity  is  violated  whenever 
the  work  of  a  single  act,  presents  more  than  one  subject  in  a 
composition ;  one  interest  in  an  action ;  one  character  in  a  per- 
sonage ;  one  principal  event  in  a  poem ;  one  historical  trait  in 
a  picture  ;  one  point  of  sight  in  a  view  or  perspective  drawing, 
etc.     Under  such  circumstances,  the  mind  would  receive  only 
disjunctive  and  incongruous  impressions.    It  would  pass  more  or 
less  rapidly  from,  one  to  another,  but  experience  neither  an 
entire  impression,  nor  a  complete  sensation — not  being  entirely 
affected,  it  would  either  not  enjoy  at  all,  or,  that  enjoyment 
would  be  but  feeble. 

435.  "This    principle    of  unity  of   the  mind,  proves    the 
necessity  of  unity  of  imitation ;  and  the  effect  of  unity  of  imita- 
tion, would,  were  it  necessary,  prove  the  unity  of  the  mind."* 

436.  The  painter  seldom   invents   his   scenes   or  subjects. 
These  are  furnished  him  by  the  poet  or  historian.     He  then 
displays  his  ability  for  invention  in  delineating  them  according 
to  the  mode  of  expression  afforded  by  his  own  art.     This  re- 
quires powers  of  mind  fully  equal  to  those  that  first  originated 

*  De  Quincy  on  The  Fine  Arts. 


COMPOSITION.  139 

the  story,  for  the  painter  is  bound  to  follow  the  ideas  already 
expressed,  and,  to  translate  them,  as  it  were,  into  the  language 
of  another  art.  He  must  in  his  own  mind,  remodel  the  subject 
chosen,  and  then  express  upon  the  canvas,  sentiments  and  feel- 
ings corresponding  to  his  conception  of  it.  Here  properly 
begins  the  artist's  invention,  and  his  merit  in  this  department 
consists  in  conveying  a  correct,  clear,  and  forcible  impression 
to  the  mind  of  the  spectator.  Upon  a  superficial  view,  this 
may  seem  an  easy  task — yet  to  excel  in  it,  requires  the  exercise 
of  the  highest  mental  faculties.  Success  depends,  first  upon  the 
artist's  choosing  a  subject  adapted  to  his  powers  of  conception, 
next  upon  his  ability  to  delineate  it  in  the  manner  required  by 
his  medium  of  expression.  To  accomplish  this,  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  rules  of  art,  and  great  acquisition  in  mechani- 
cal skill  are  no  less  necessary,  than  the  mental  ability  for  con- 
ceiving the  subject,  the  powers  of  discrimination  to  select  the 
beautiful  and  true,  and  the  judgment  to  decide  upon  the  suitable 
and  appropriate  in  reference  to  the  character  of  his  work. 

437.  Before  proceeding  to  composition,  the  artist  should  first 
classify  his  subject.     After  deciding  upon  the  impression  he 
intends  to  convey,  he  chooses  his  figures,  his  tone  of  color,  and 
the  accessories   on  which  he  depends  for  expression.     In  the 
selection  of  the  characters  introduced,  their   relative  position 
and  attitude,  the  management  of  the  light,  shade,  and  color,  the 
arrangement   of  the  back-ground   and  accessories,  the  artist 
shows  his  design ;    or,  in  other  words,  his  conception  of  the 
subject  that  he  endeavors  to  express  upon  the  canvas  by  the 
imitation  of  various  objects.     Success  in  composition,  requires 
first,  a  careful  observance  of  the  rules  as  already  treated  in  the 
various  elements  of  art ;  next,  to  compose  with  accuracy  and 
beauty,  the  artist  must  understand  the  principles  of  Perspec- 
tive, Line,  Light,  and  Shade,  Colors,  Variety,  Repose,  Simpli- 
city, and  Harmony.     Perspective  and  Line  demand  the  first 
attention. — (§  301,  §  311.) 

438.  In  a  dramatic  representation,  there  must  be  a  hero,  or 

5* 


140  STUDY  OF  ART. 

heroine,  who  sustains  the  principal  part,  and  to  whom  all  the 
other  characters  belonging  to  the  scene,  however  subordinate, 
have  a  due  relation.  The  same  rule  must  govern  the  arrange- 
ment of  figures  in  a  pictorial  representation.  There  must  be 
one  who,  as  the  hero  of  the  story,  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
picture.  His  position,  attitude,  and  expression,  should  give  him 
a  marked  distinction  from  others  introduced,  who  are  merely 
his  attendants,  and  should  be  made  to  appear  as  subordinate 
characters.  The  principal  figure  should  receive  the  strongest 
light,  and  the  most  striking  color :  the  greatest  force  and  effect 
that  can  be  given  by  what  most  attracts  the  eye.  The  other 
characters  introduced  should  then  receive  light,  color,  and  ex- 
pression according  to  their  relative  importance  in  the  group,  or 
their  distances  from  the  centre. 

439.  In  regard  to  the  number  of  figures  introduced  in  a  picture, 
the  best  artists  are  governed  by  the  same  rule  as  the  best  dra- 
matic writers,  who  included  in  their  compositions  the  smallest 
number  possible.     Nothing  is  so  injurious  to  effect  as  a  crowded 
picture.     If  the   subject   requires   the   introduction   of  many 
figures,  they  should  be  distributed  in  masses,  or  groups,  in  dif- 
ferent gradations,  all  indicating  a  subordinate  relation  to  one 
principal  group,  or  mass,  which  should  occupy,  in  the  centre,  a 
place  corresponding  to  that  of  the  principal  figure,  or  personage, 
in  a  composition  including  three  or  four  figures.     In  some  of 
the  best  compositions  of  the  best  masters,  a  single  group  of  four 
or  five  figures  is  found  sufficient  to  tell  an  interesting  story,  and 
to  display  great  artistic  ability.     The  object  in  breaking  a  com- 
position into  groups,  is  that  the  eye,  in  passing  from  one  to 
another,  may,  by  having  a  distinct  classification  of  the  parts, 
easily  comprehend   the  whole.     When  a  mass  of  people  are 
crowded  together,  and  no  prominence  given  to  any  one  person, 
or  any  number  of  persons  divided  from  the  rest  with  reference 
to  the  effect  of  gradation,  it  is  then  merely  grouping,  not  compo- 
sing.    A  distinction  which  it  is  important  for  the  artist  to  bear 
in  mind. 

440.  Figures  should  be  more  or  less  varied  in  attitude,  be-r 


COMPOSITION.  141 

cause  an  exact  repetition  of  line  produces  formality.  The 
manner  and  extent  of  variation  must  be  decided  by  the  subject. 
They  must  also  vary  in  regard  to  prominence.  The  artist  who 
i-i-prescnts  all  the  figures  introduced  in  his  picture,  as  holding 
the  same  rank,  making  each  one  equally  prominent,  understands 
nothing  of  the  principles  of  nature,  or  the  laws  of  art.  The 
same  artist  will,  with  great  labor,  bring  forward,  on  his  canvas, 
the  most  insignificant  objects  ;  for  trivial  minds  ever  value  tri- 
vial things. 

441.  The  chiaro-scuro  of  a  composition  requires  great  care 
and  study.     It  comprehends  not  only  its  adaptation  to  the  cha- 
racter of  the  subject,  but  a  due  attention  to  the  properties  of 
objects  included,  in  regard  to  their  power  of  absorbing  or  re- 
flecting light ;  the  mechanical  arrangement  of  light,  shade,  and 
reflexes ;  and  the  proportional  force  of  colors,  according  to  the 
laws  of  aerial  perspective.     In  the  distribution  of  light  and 
shade,   mathematical  accuracy  requires  nothing  incompatible 
with  taste  and  effect ;  and  it  is  only  by  duly  observing  the  laws 
that  govern  light  and  shade,  and  the  rules  founded  on  those 
laws,  that  a  harmonious  and  expressive  chiaro-scuro  can  be 
produced. 

442.  The  source  and  direction  of  light,  and  its  proportion  to 
the  shade  must  be  decided  by  the  character  of  the  subject.     As 
a  general  rule,  light  from  above  has  the  best  effect.     Because, 
first,  the  shadows  are  shorter ;  second,  the  forms  appear  better 
than  when  the  light  strikes  in  an  oblique  direction ;  third,  this 
arrangement  of  light  makes  the  plan  of  the  picture  more  clear. 
Light  should  fall  more  or  less  obliquely,  according  to  the  depth 
of  shade  required  for  expression. 

443.  Unity  of  light  in  a  picture  is  an  established  rule  of  art 
founded  on  a  law  of  nature.     This  gives  one  focus,  which  should 
be  near  the  middle  of  the  canvas.     The  figures,  with  regard  to 
the  focus  of  light,  should  be  so  grouped  that  the  principal  one 
will  receive  it.     This  figure  then  becomes  the  centre  of  obser- 
vation ;  for  the  eye  is  ever  attracted  by  light  and  turns  instinc- 

5  • 


142  STUDY  OF   ART. 

tively  to  it.  Other  figures  introduced  should  receive  the  light 
in  due  gradation,  according  to  their  relative  position  to  the  pro- 
minent character  of  the  group  represented.  Gradation,  so  in- 
dispensable to  harmony,  requires  that  the  secondary  lights 
should  be  nearly  equal  in  force,  though  not  in  extent,  to  the 
principal  light.  It  will  be  readily  seen,  that  under  the  proper 
regulation  of  laws,  light  is  to  the  artist  a  language,  or  medium 
of  expression,  that  he  cannot  well  spare ;  and  that  without  a 
due  observance  of  the  laws  of  light,  the  plan  of  his  picture  will 
be  more  or  less  confused,  and  admit  of  no  definite  interpreta- 
tion. 

444.  Two  lights  may  be  introduced  in  a  picture,  if  one  is 
made  predominant,  to  which  the  other  is  entirely  subordinate, 
as  in  the  greater  and  lesser  lights  of  nature.     There  are  fine 
examples  of  the  introduction  of  two  lights  among  the  old  Dutch 
painters.     Sometimes  both  natural ;  and  again,  one  natural  and 
the  other  artificial. 

445.  Objects  receiving  light,  should  not  be  extended  to  the 
margin,  because,  in  the  first  place,  the  lights  cannot  be  well 
supported  by  the  shades.     In  the  next,  extending  the  lights 
quite  to  the  boundary  gives  the  effect  of  an  unfinished  picture, 
which  destroys  the  unity  so  essential  to  the  harmony  and  com- 
pletion of  the  subject. 

446.  The  lights,  as  well  as  the  figures,  should  vary  in  form. 
This  depends  much  upon  the  management  of  the  drapery.     In 
the  infinitely  various  modes  of  arranging  draperies,  the  artist 
may  contract  or  extend  his  lights  at  pleasure,  varying  the  general 
effect  to  any  extent. 

447.  "  If  the  light  and  shade  in  a  picture  are  well  arranged, 
and  in  due  quantity,  the  effect  will  be  pleasing,  even  at  such 
distance  from  the  eye  that  the  subject  cannot  be  distinguished. 
It  is  then  a  mere  correspondence,  or  a  balancing  of  light  and 
shade.     On  a  nearer  approach,  its  force  and  powerful  relief 
attract  the  eye,  and  fix  the  attention  of  the  spectator.     It  will 
not  have  this  effect,  unless  it  possesses  the  essential  requisites 
of  chiaro-scuro" 


COMPOSITION.  143 

448.  Barry  remarks,  that  extensive  shades  contribute  greatly 
to  the  beautiful  as  well  as  the  grand  and  majestic  result  of  the 
whole  together ;  they  equally  serve  to  give  richness  and  grace 
to  the  middle  tints,  and  brilliancy,  beauty,  and  animation  to 
the  masses  of  light ;  they  also  afford  a  repose  no  less  grateful 
and  necessary  to  prevent  the  fatigue  and  over-exertion  of  the 
sight  on  the  illuminated  parts.     To  this  end,  all  the  obscure  or 
dark  parts  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  form  one  general  mass, 
and  its  greatest  force  collected  into  some  one  part,  where  it  will 
have  the  best  effect,  and  become  a  principal  on  which  all  the 
others  are  in  a  graduated  and  harmonious  dependence.     With 
respect  to  this  mass  of  shade,  it  need  hardly  be  observed,  that 
even  where  most  vigorous,  it  is  not  a  mere  blot,  which  obliterates 
wherever  it  is  extended.     The  occasions  are  very  few,  where 
either  the  form  or  the  proper  color  of  objects  can  be  thus  totally 
lost  because  objects  in  the  strongest  shade  are  only  deprived 
of  direct  light ;  they  are  more  or  less  illuminated  by  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere,  and  the  reflected  lights  from  other  bodies. 
The  united  portions  of  this  mass  of  shade,  are,  like  the  masses 
of  light,  equally  susceptible  of  all  the  variations  of  size  and 
figure.     The  interposition  of  drapery,  its  accidental  casts  of 
folds,  and  many  other  things  in  their  nature  purely  optional, 
may  be  made  use  of,  when  they  do  not  interfere  with  propriety 
and  other  important  considerations.     By  these  happy  artifices, 
the  shades  may  be  occasionally  contracted  or  extended,  and 
made  to  assume  any  desired  form,  and  reflexes  obtained  wher- 
ever they  will  produce  a  good  effect. 

449.  Color,  in  its  choice  and  arrangement,  must  be  considered 
in  relation  to  the  whole  of  a  picture,  as  well  as  the  parts  of 
which  it  is  composed.     "  In  relation  to  the  whole,  the  subject 
must  be  considered,  before  deciding  the  choice  of  a  tone  color, 
which  may  be  suited  to  the  grave,  the  gay,  or  the  solemn.     As 
for  instance,  the  quiet  twilight,  which  is  the  tone  for  devotion,  or 
cloistered  meditation.     This  primary  tone  depends  on  choice, 
and  is  arbitrary ;  decides  all  the  rest,  as  the  tone  of  the  first 


144:  STUDY   OF  ART. 

violin  in  regular  concert  tunes  all  the  voices  and  all  the  instru- 
ments. Its  effect  entirely  depends  on  the  harmony  of  the  sur- 
rounding tones,  and  its  principal  value  is  derived  from  contrast. 
By  this,  the  simplest  tone,  well  managed,  may  become  rich, 
splendid,  and  harmonious.  It  is  then  the  tone  of  nature  ;  whilst 
the  most  brilliant  color,  if  contradicted  or  disappointed,  becomes 
leathern,  heavy,  and  discordant." 

450.  The  character  or  expression  of  a  picture  may  be  beau- 
tifully completed  by  the  tone  of  color  adopted ;  and  again,  all 
effect  destroyed  if  the  color  contradicts  the  subject.     The  com- 
plete success  of  the  painter,  in  every  subject  attempted,  depends 
much  on  the  choice  of  his  tone  color.    Gay  colors  are  to  a  grave 
subject,  like  double  quick  time  to  a  funeral  dirge  ;  or,  the  nar- 
rative of  a  tragedy  in  a  light  and  flippant  tone.     "  The  same 
good  taste  and  propriety  that  regulates  the  light  and  shade,  will 
also  decide  the  tone  color ;  which,  when  once  chosen,  must  pre- 
dominate over  all  the  rest  introduced  in  the  picture." — (§  369.) 

451.  This  rule  also,  has  its  foundation  in  nature.     Observe 
the  colors  as  we  find  them  in  the  various   climates.     The  bril- 
liant colors  of  the  tropics  are  never  mingled  with  the  cold,  blue- 
greens  of  the  northern  regions.     Or,  take  for  example,  the 
seasons,  and  observe  the  delicate  tint  of  the  flowers  that  har- 
monize with  the  fresh,  young  green  of  spring ;  and  then  as  the 
season  changes  to  summer,  every  thing  becomes  warmer,  and 
more  brilliant.      Still  there  is  one  prevailing   tone;    and  in 
autumn,  as  the  greens  assume  a  deeper  shade,  in  the  full  ma- 
turity that  precedes  decay,  how  rich  and  deep-toned  are  the 
fruits  and  flowers  of  that  luxuriant  season !     Till  finally,  in 
their   decay,   every  thing  assumes  alike  the  russet-brown,  in 
obedience  to  the  immutable  laws  of  harmony ;  when,  as  if  to 
compensate  for  the  loss  of  color,  nature  envelopes  herself  in 
that  soft  and  hazy  atmosphere,  that  lends  a  beauty  to  the  bright 
cheek  of  youth,  as   well  as  to  the  decayed  and  falling  leaf. 
With  so  true  a  teacher,  the  artist  has  no  excuse  for  failure. 
Let  him  obey  her  laws,  and  he  will  ensure  success  to  his 
work. 


COMPOSITION.  14:5 

452.  The  principles  of  coloring  in  relation  to  composition 
may  be  considered  under  several  heads,  viz:  Truth,  Force, 
Degradation  or  keeping,  Harmony  or  union,  Contrast,  etc. 

453.  Truth   of  imitation    requires    that    colors    should   be 
combined   and   arranged   according    to    the   laws   of   nature. 
—(§350.) 

454.  "  The  principles  which  regulate  the  combination  and 
arrangement  of  colors,  are  as  invariable  as  the  light  which  is 
their  source,  and  the  shade  by  which  they  are  absorbed.    Their 
economy  is  neither  arbitrary  nor  fantastic.     They  emerge  from, 
and  flow  into  each  other  in  regular  order.     No  confusion  can 
thwart  or  break  their  gradations,  from  blue  to  red,  from  red  to 
yellow.     The  flame  of  every  light  establishes  this  immutable 
scale."  By  observing  these  laws,  truth  of  coloring  is  secured ; 
and  on  this  foundation  the  artist  may  indulge  his  imagination 
and  idealize  at  pleasure.  (§  36.) 

455.  If  color  is  not  idealized,  it  is  mere  paint  and  cannot 
harmonize  with  the  ideal  character  of  an  ideal  picture.     The 
ideal  in  color,  as  well  as  in  form,  depends  upon  the  mental  con- 
ception, or  rather,  the  sentiment  of  beauty  in  the  mind  of  the 
artist.     The  manufacturer  considers  beauty  of  color  with  the 
intention  of  pleasing  the  eye.     The  artist  has  also  the  same 
object  in  a  work  that  is  addressed  to  the  mind ;  therefore  he 
must  consider  the  sentiment,  or  feeling,  he  intends  to  excite,  as 
well  as  the  organ  which  is  his  medium  of  communication. — (§  44.) 

456.  Force  of  color  depends,  first,  upon  the  force  of  light 
and  shade.     The  same  rules  that  govern  the  arrangement  of 
light  and  shade,  necessarily  apply  to  the  distribution,  relief,  and 
reflection  of  colors.    Great  brilliancy  and  force  of  effect  is  given, 
by  making  some  parts  of  a  picture  as  dark,  and  others  as  light 
as  possible  ;  and  then  harmonizing  the  two  extremes  by  the  in- 
troduction of  gradatory  and  demi-tints.     Rubens  excelled  in 
this  style.    He  considered  the  distribution  of  the  lights  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  obtain  the  greatest  life,  force,  and  effect,  as  the 
basis  of  all  coloring.    The  same  effect  is  given  by  the  extremes 
of  warm  and  cold  colors,  that  are  harmonized  by  being  dispersed 

7 


146  STUDY  OF  ART. 

over  every  part  of  a  picture;  till,  at  a  distance,  the  whole 
appears,  with  regard  to  color,  like  a  bunch  of  flowers.  The 
splendor  of  this  style  eclipses  all  others. 

457.  "  Every   color,  whether   simple  or   compound,  has   its 
proper   chiaro-scuro,  consisting  of    every  possible  degree  of 
depth   and   strength   of   hue,  from  the   weakest   tints  to  the 
strongest ;  and  as  the  selection  and  its  position  are  optional,  the 
artist  has    an  opportunity  to  adjust  the  composition  and  the 
light  and  shade,  so  as  to  assimilate  the  forms  and  also  for  vary- 
ing them  to  any  extent,  either  in  the  lights  and  shades,  demi- 
tints,  or  the  reflexes,  and  still  preserve  the  unity,  and  give  a 
harmonious  effect  to  the  whole.     Each  color,  whether  simple  or 
compound,  is  also  susceptible  of  any  degree  of  illumination  or 
obscurity,  strength,  or  weakness.     Harmony  of  color,  in  rela- 
tion to  the  parts  of  a  picture,  depends  upon  the  skillful  disposi- 
tion and  gradation  of  color,  in  regard  to  the  principal  light,  the 
demi-tints,  the  shades  and  reflexes." 

458.  The  principal  figure  must  receive  the  principal  color, 
for  the  same  reason  that  it  receives  the  strongest  light.     Other 
figures  introduced  receive  it  in  due  gradation.     This  effect  is 
accomplished   by   the  judicious    management   of   colors    with 
regard  to  sympathy  and  antipathy,  warmth  and  coldness. 

459.  Harmonious   coloring  depends,  first,   upon  the  artist's 
mixing  his  colors  according  to  the  principles  of  nature,  as  dis- 
closed by  the  prism.     Next,  upon  the  order  and  arrangement 
of  colors,  in  which  he  must  also  be  guided  by  the  laws  of 
nature. 

460.  According  to  the  natural  order  of  colors,  the  light  side 
of  a  figure,  or  group,  may  receive  yellow,  orange,  and  red. 
The  Warm  colors  cannot  be  made  to  retire,  because  they  reflect 
so  much  light.     They  should  never  be  laid  upon  the  side  that 
recedes  from  the  light,  because  they  will  come  forward.     The 
warm  colors  naturally  belong  to  the  illuminated  side  of  an 
object.     These  pass  to  violet,  which  is  the  intermediate.     The 
cold  colors,  green,  blue,  and  indigo,  which,  from  their  nature, 
appear  more  distant  to  the  eye  than  the  warm  colors,  belong  to 


COMPOSITION.  147 

the  retiring  parts  of  a,  composition.  If  there  is  occasion  to 
bring  them  forward,  they  must  be  modified  to  suit  their  position. 
And  if  the  warm  are  carried  back,  the  same  care  is  neces- 
sary. (§  357.) 

461.  In  nature,  we  find  a  perfect  harmony  of  color  with  an 
infinite  variety  of  hues,  tints  and  shades.     In  producing  this 
harmony,  the  atmosphere  is  the  chief  agent.     The  effect  of  a 
warm  or  cold  atmosphere  upon  colors  has  already  been  ex- 
plained. (§  366.)  In  art,  harmony  of  coloring  requires  a  careful 
observance  of  this  law ;  and,  in  every  composition,  a  predo- 
minance must  be  given  to  the  tone-color,  which  may  be  either  a 
primary  or  secondary. 

462.  A   variety   of    superfluous    tints    should    be    avoided. 
Quietness  and  simplicity,  that  should  generally  characterize  a 
work,  can  only  be  effected  by  a  breadth  of  simple  and  uniform 
color.     It  is  true  that  grandeur  of  effect  may  be  produced  by 
two  very  opposite  and  different  methods.     One  is,  by  reducing 
the  colors  to  a  little  more  than  chiaro-scuro  ;  and  the  other,  by 
making  the  colors  very  distinct  and  forcible.     Still,  the  ruling 
principle  in  both  these  methods,  and  the  one  to. which  they  owe 
their  success,  is  simplicity.     The  distinct  blue  and  red,  in  the 
draperies  of  the  Roman  and  Florentine  schools,  though  destitute 
of  the  harmony  produced  by  a  variety  of  broken  and  transpa- 
rent colors,  yet  possess  the  effect  of  grandeur  required,  and 
strike  the  eye  with  more  force  than  if  they  were  harmonized  by 
a  greater  number  of  tints. 

463.  In  nature,  we  find  the  same  colors  dispersed  every- 
where, however  limited  or  extensive   the  view.      Take,   for 
instance,  a  field  of  flowers.     No  mass  of  color  is  in  a  spot  by 
itself;  but  all  are  intermingled,  which  produces  a  balance  of 
color.     If  a  color  is  introduced  but  once  in  a  picture,  it  appears 
like  a  spot  on  the  canvas ;  and  again,  in  the  repetition,  it  must 
be  slightly  varied  in  form,  tint,  or  hue ;  as,  for  instance,  a  rose 
in  a  bunch  of  flowers,  may  be  balanced  by  a  pink  azalia,  or  one 
purple  flower,  by  another  differing  in  form  and  hue.     Perfect 
harmony  of  coloring  requires  a  careful  observance  of  this  law 


148  STUDY   OF  ART. 

of  nature  in  all  compositions.  If  the  subject  requires  a  gay  and 
brilliant  tone,  the  life  and  vivacity  of  contrast,  the  colors  intro- 
duced to  secure  that  effect  must  be  duly  balanced  by  those  that 
are  harmonious,  else  the  eye  will  become  sated.  On  this  point, 
no  definite  rule  can  be  given.  If  there  is  too  much  contrast, 
the  picture  will  be  spotty ;  if  too  little,  where  decided  colors  are 
introduced,  it  will  be  monotonous.  In  the  arrangement  of  colors, 
much  is  gained  by  varying  the  forms  of  objects. 

464.  Contrast  is  essential  to  the  beauty  of  coloring,  and  we 
have  already  considered  its  laws.  (§  361.)  In  producing  con- 
trast, broad,  glaring,  unmodified  colors  must  be  carefully  avoid- 
ed.     The  colors  of  nature  are  brilliant,   but   never  glaring. 
There  is,  in  her  works,  however  brilliant  they  may  be,  some 
modification,  or  combination,  that  renders  them  pleasing  to  the 
eye.     The  eye  is  wearied  by  too  much  of  one  decided  color,  as 
much  as  the  ear  by  one  prolonged  sound  in  music.     All  warm 
colors,  particularly,  require  to  be  mellowed  and  softened  till  they 
become  a  hue  or  tint  of  color.     Observe  how  nature  variegates, 
or  breaks  up  a  broad  space  of  color.    Take,  for  instance,  a  large 
leaf,  or  petal ;  it  is  either  spotted,  or  strongly  marked  with 
veins,  or  so  curled  as  to  be  greatly  varied,  by  a  play  of  light  and 
shade.     In  nature,  we  are  pleased  with  brilliancy,  because  it  is 
an  evidence  of  life,  of  vitality.     In  art,  we  look  for  a  fictious 
imitation  of  nature ;  and,  in  the  imitations  of  life,  where  life  is 
wanting,  decided  colors  are  a  mockery;  and  the  artist  who 
attempts  to  vie  with  nature,  instead  of  imitating  her,  betrays  his 
vanity,  and,  at  the  same  time,  proves  his  impotence. 

465.  Thus  far  nature  is  a  guide  to  the  artist ;  but  in  harmo- 
nizing the  colors  in  any  composition,  much  depends  upon  the 
taste  and  judgment.     It  is  required  as  a  rule  that  "  light  and 
shade  should  be  positive,  and  then  harmonized  by  the  grada- 
tion of  the  demi-shades.     In  coloring,  the  same  rule  must  be 
observed,  and  the  lights  and  shades  harmonized  by  demi-tints 
composed  of  colors  that  represent  both,  and  the  tint  produced  by 
the  intermingling  of  reflected  colors.     (§  359.)     It  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  harmony  depends  no  less  upon  a  balance  of  light 


COMPOSITION.  149 

and  shade,  than  upon  a  balance  of  color  ;  and  also  upon  a  unity 
of  ^luide.  The  colors  of  several  objects  introduced  may  be  so 
rl;o>eu  as  to  produce  a  harmonious  and  vigorous  effect  by  their 
strength  and  variety.  This  depends  upon  so  arranging  the 
colors  as  to  produce  an  agreeable  contrast  to  their  tones  and 
hues.  Some  objects  require  that  the  colors  should  be  arranged 
in  large  masses.  In  small  masses,  force  of  effect  is  wanting. 
Opposition  between  two  masses  of  color  may  be  rendered  less 
striking  and  distinct,  by  means  of  a  third  or  intermediate  mass ; 
which,  if  properly  chosen,  will  serve  to  unite  them  and  give 
harmony  to  the  whole.  The  sentiment  or  character  of  the  work 
may  require  the  force  of  direct  opposition,  or  the  effect  produ- 
ced by  the  softest  union  and  blending  of  colors.  In  either  case, 
the  intermediate  masses  are  indispensable  to  harmony." 

466.  "The  Venetian  painters  made  the  principal  masses  of  a 
warm,  mellow  color ;  either  a  yellow  red,  or  a  yellowish  white  ; 
not  allowing  the  blue,  grey,  or  greenish  tint  used  for  shade  to 
appear  in  these  masses,  and  using  a  very  small  portion  only  to 
contrast  or  support  the  warm  colors."    This  practice  is  essential 
to  harmony,  and  the  rule  for  it  is  founded  in  a  law  of  nature, 
where  the  illuminated  parts  of  objects  are  always  of  a  warmer 
tint  than  those  in  the  shade ;  and  in  following  nature,  the  artist 
never  fails  to  please  the  eye.    The  prism  shows  us  that  in  nature 
the  warm  colors  predominate ;  and  to  preserve  a  perfectly  har- 
monious effect,  first  in  the  combination  of  colors,  and  next,  in 
their  arrangement,  this  law  must  be  kept  constantly  in  mind. 
In  cold  climates,  where  blue  seems  to  predominate,  the  artist 
will  find  that  he  cannot  make  a  successful  imitation  of  the  colors 
of  nature,  as  found  in  those  regions,  without  the  use  of  red  and 
yellow  in  the  natural  proportion  to  the  blue;  but  the  yellow 
used  must  be  less  brilliant,  and  the  red  of  a  cooler  tone. 

467.  "  The  color  which  forms  the  principal  mass  must  be  dif- 
fused through  the  different  parts  of  a  picture — and  again,  where 
many  heads  and  hands  are  dispersed  over  the  picture,  a  mass  of 
the  same  color  is  required.     This  is  better  introduced  by  a 
figure  partly  nude  ;  or,  if  the  subject  will  not  allow  of  it,  a 


150  STUDY   OF   AKT. 

drapery  approaching  a  flesh  tint  may  be  made  a  substitute,  as 
in  the  transfiguration  for  instance ;  where  a  woman  is  clothed  in 
drapery  of  this  color,  which  makes  the  principal  mass  to  the 
heads  and  hands  of  the  picture." 

468.  Harmony  also  requires  that  all  objects  included  in  a 
picture  should  appear  to  the  eye  at  their  true  distance.     The 
effect  of  the  atmosphere  in  nature  is,  to  render  the  objects  indis- 
tinct in  proportion  to  their  distance  from  the  eye  of  the  specta- 
tor.    Those  in  his  immediate  vicinity  are  perfectly  clear ;  while 
in  the  intermediate  distance  from  the  nearest  object  to  the  most 
remote,  there  is  a  true  gradation.     To  preserve  the  same  effect 
of  gradation  or  distance,  in  every  subject  where  space  is  rep- 
resented, is  essential  to  the  harmonious  effect  of  the   whole. 
(§  370.) 

469.  Opposite  colors,  those  that  neither  harmonize  nor  con- 
trast in  their  tones,  as  blue  and  red,  are  forcible  in  character 
when  combined  in  the  same  composition.     "  The  distinct  blue 
and  red  in  the  draperies  of  the  Eoman  and  Florentine  painters, 
though  destitute  of  the  harmony  produced  by  a  variety  of  bro- 
ken and  transparent  colors,  yet  possess  the  effect  of  grandeur 
required,  and  strike  the  eye  with  more  force  than  if  they  had 
been  harmonized  by  a  greater  number  of  tints." 

470.  Nothing  has  so  bad  an  effect  as  a  picture  crowded  with 
accessories  that  have  no  connection  with  the  principal  object,  or 
group.     "When  well  chosen,  and  properly  arranged,  they  help 
to  tell  the  story,  and  heighten  the  interest  of  the  scene.     Yet, 
there  is  scarcely  any  pictorial  subject  that  does  not  require  the 
expression  and  character  obtained  by  the  introduction  of  some 
accessory.     Let  an  artist  picture  a  female  figure  expressive  of 
holy  resignation  :  it  serves  as  a  representation  of  one  class  of 
humanity.     If  he  adds  a  wheel  to  his  costume,  it  is  marked  at 
once  as  St.   Catharine.     A  tower  introduced  as  an  accessory 
would  have  marked  it  as  St.  Barbara.     A  picture  of  the  two 
Marys  at  the  tomb,  seated  and  waiting,  requires  no  accessories. 
Anything  added  to  the  tomb  and  the  two  figures  would  only 


COMPOSITION.  151 

serve  to  divert  attention,  and  destroy  the  beauty  and  simplicity 
of  the  subject.represented,  and  would  weaken,  rather  than  add 
to  the  expression. 

471.  It  is  universally  allowed  that   Raffaelle  excelled  all 
other  painters  in  a  graceful  arrangement  of  drapery,  and  a 
natural  disposition  of  the  folds.     By  studying  the  principles  of 
the  ancients,  he  learned  to  consider  the  figure  as  the  principal 
part,  and  that  drapery  should  be  regarded  as  an  accessory. 
That  it  is  intended  to  cover,  and  not  to  conceal.     That  it  is 
employed  not  from  caprice,  but  from  necessity.     Consequently, 
the  dress  should  not  be  so  narrow  as  to  constrain  the  members, 
nor  so  ample  as  to  conceal  them,  but  suitably  adapted  to  the 
size  and  attitude  of  the  figures  represented.     His  ample  drape- 
ries had  no  useless  folds,  and  were  bent  at  the  articulations. 
The  form  of  the  figure  indicated  the  form  of  the  folds,  and  on 
the  great  muscles  he  formed  great  masses.     When  any  limb 
was  fore-shortened  in  the  drawing,  he  covered  it  with  the  same 
number  of  folds  as  if  it  were  extended,  but  crowded  them  in 
proportion  to  the  fore-shortening.     By  the  folds  of  his  draperies, 
it  is  easy  to  determine  the  attitude  of  the  figure  previous  to  the 
one  in  which  it  appears.     For  example  :  whether  the  arm  were 
extended  or  reposing  immediately  before  the  action  in  which  it 
is  represented.     This  was  an  expression  he  carefully  studied  on 
all  occasions.     When  the  drapery  was  to  cover  the  leg  or  the 
arm  but  partially,  he  made  it  cut  the  member  obliquely.     His 
folds  were  of  a  triangular  form.     The  reason  for  this  is  found 
in  nature  ;  for  all  drapery,  after  being  extended  and  then  falling 
again  under  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  is  naturally  formed 
into   triangles.     His  whole   practice  demonstrates  the  theory 
that  the  movements  of  the  figure  cause  the  peculiar  form  and 
position  of  the  folds  exhibited  in  the  drapery  that  covers  it. 

472.  In  the  painting  of  drapery,  many  artists  consider  it  ne- 
cessary to  make  afac  simile  of  satin,  velvet,  etc.;  but  the  great 
ideal  artists  represented  no  particular  fabric  in  their  draperies, 
because  that  would  have  destroyed  the  harmony  of  an  ideal 


152  STUDY    OF  ART. 

picture.     If  one  part  is  ideal  in  representation,  unity  and  har- 
mony require  that  every  part  should  be  idealized,  (k) 

473.  Nature  never  repeats  herself,  even  in  two  sides  of  a 
leaf.     Such  precision  belongs  to  machine  work ;  and,  in  studying 
nature,  we  learn  that  variety  is  no  less  necessary  to  a  pleasing 
composition,  than  unity.     No  limit  can  be  defined  as  a  rule ;  and 
the  artist,  in  deciding  his  choice,  must  be  guided  by  the  charac- 
ter of  the  subject.    If  it  is  light  and  gay,  a  much  greater  variety 
of  objects  and  of  colors  may  be  admitted  than  if  it  is  grave  and 
majestic.     By  multiplying  objects,  a  greater  variety  is  obtained 
in  line,  light  and  shade,  and  color,  which  contributes  to  gaiety. 
A  variety  of  objects  is  inconsistent  with  the  simplicity,  so  essen- 
tial to  the  grand  style.     In  pictures  of  this  character,  variety 
must  be  considered  with  reference  to  that  undivided  attention 
which  a  great  subject  demands. 

474.  In  relation  to  art,  true  simplicity  is  the  opposite  of 
exuberance  or  pretension,  and  requires  that  the  effect  intended 
shall  be  produced  by  means  neither  numerous  nor  complicated. 
Simplicity  should  prevade  all  parts  of  a  work,  from  the  general 
plan  to  the  execution  of  the  details.     The  best  works  of  art, 
those  that  are  the  most  pleasing,  the  most  enduring,  and  produce 
the  most  forcible  impression,  are  always  characterized  by  sim- 
plicity. 

475.  Proportion  is  requisite  in  everything  intended  to  please 
the  eye.     The  most  cultivated  taste,  and  the  most  practiced  eye 
can  best  judge  of  proportion.     In  works  of  art,  it  refers,  first,  to 
size ;  next,  to  the  degree  of  light  and  shade ;  and  again,  to  the 
force  of  expression  required  in  the  character  or  scene  repre- 
sented.    Any  work  is  in  good  proportion,  if  its  details  are  nei- 
ther too  large,  nor  too  small,  when  viewed  in  relation  to  the 
whole,  or  to  each  other. 

476.  To  the  grace  and  beauty  of  the  whole  work,  harmony  is 


COMPOSITION.  153 

indispensable.  Without  harmony,  each  part  may  fail  of  the 
effect  intended,  however  true  in  design.  There  must  be  har- 
mony of  line,  harmony  of  grouping,  harmony  of  light  and  shade, 
harmony  of  coloring,  harmony  of  expression.  Each  part  must 
be  so  adapted  as  to  correspond  to  the  rest.  The  attitude  must  be 
in  keeping  with  the  expression;  the  color,  with  the  subject 
treated ;  and  the  accessories  must  be  true,  both  to  the  character 
and  the  age  represented.  A  harmonious  whole  is  always  more 
or  less  pleasing  in  itself,  independent  of  subject  or  style. 

477.  Lastly,  breadth  is  essential  to  harmony.     According  to 
Allston,  "  by  breadth  is  meant  such  a  massing  of  the  quantities, 
whether  by  color,  light  or  shadow,  as  shall  enable  the  eye  to 
pass  without  obstruction,  and  by  easy  transitions  from  one  part 
to  another,  so  that  it  shall  appear  to  take  in  the  whole  at  a 
glance."     To  this,  unity  is   essential.     Unity  is  distinct  from 
harmony,  and  requires  one  point  of  view,  one  focus  of  light, 
one  tone  of  color,  one  prominent  character,  or  group,  one  lead- 
ing idea.     There  may  be  unity  of  parts  when  harmony  in  the 
whole  is  entirely  wanting.     When  the  objects  introduced  in  a 
composition  are  multiplied,  scattered  and  divided,  the  eye,  in 
searching  for  the  principal  object  of  interest,  becomes  wearied 
and  perplexed,  and  the  picture  is  then  said  to  want  repose. 

478.  The  importance  of  carefully  regarding  this  law  of  unity 
of  the  mind  cannot  be  denied.   The  painter  is  too  apt  to  depend 
upon  the  effect  of  color,  forgetting  that  the  eye  may  be  delighted 
with  a  brilliant  display  when  no  impression  is  made  upon  the 
mind.     In  the  same  manner,  the  ear  is  pleased  with  sound,  as 
in  children  and  savages,  when  the  senses  are  gratified,  not  the 
sentiments  to  which  the  artist  appeals  with  the  intention  of  con- 
tributing to  the  pleasures  of  taste. 

479.  In  learning  the  rules  for  composition,  as  in  all  other 
departments  of  art,  the  artist  must  study  nature  to  find  his  fun- 
damental principle.     And  in  doing  so,  he  will  learn,  that  in  ac- 
cordance to  this  law  of  unity  of  the  mind,  but  one  feeling  or 
sentiment  is  directly  and  decidedly  addressed  by  any  one  pro- 


154  STUDY   OF   ART. 

duction  of  nature.  Flowers  having  the  strongest  perfume,  like 
the  orange,  jasmine,  and  lilac,  are  either  white,  or  most  deli- 
cately tinted.  In  the  charms  displayed  by  the  gorgeous  lilies 
and  tulips,  the  eye  alone  is  gratified.  Brilliant  birds  are  never 
great  singers.  People  who  are  regularly  beautiful  are  not 
gifted  with  strong  mental  capacity ;  for  according  to  the  laws 
of  harmony,  strength  of  character  is  too  decidedly  marked  in 
the  physical  development,  to  admit  of  the  delicacy  that  is  essen- 
tial to  regular  beauty.  We  find  every  degree  of  strength  and 
beauty,  every  variety  of  element,  and  every  possible  variety 
of  combination  in  the  human  form  and  character ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  harmony  that  pervades  life,  we  also  find,  that 
the  intermediate  combination,  that  serves  to  unite  and  har- 
monize the  two  extremes,  partaking  alike  of  the  character  of 
both,  is  never  wanting. 

480.  This  production,  combining  as  it  does  in  modified  form, 
the  characteristics  of  the   class  it  represents,  is  the  most  uni- 
versally pleasing.     Its  character  and   beauty  are  appreciated 
and  admired  by  the  highest  order  of  minds,  while  neither  is 
lost  upon  the  less  gifted.     In  flowers,  we  have  an  example  of  it 
in  the  rose.     In  birds,  the  canary.     In  colors,  the  violet.     In 
man,  it  is  the  medium  between  beauty  and  deformity,  strength 
and  weakness.     Let  the  artist  ignore  this  law  of  unity,  physical 
and  mental,  and  imitate  some  tragic  or  pathetic  scene  in  brilliant 
colors,  intending  in  that  way  to  make  a  stronger  impression, 
and  he  will  gratify  those  only  who  are  pleased  with  bright  colors  : 
those  who  regard  pictures  as  articles  of  ornament  and  not  as  a 
medium  for  giving  expression  to  some  of  the  highest  concep- 
tions of  which  the  human  mind  is  capable,  (f) 

481.  The  old  masters,  in  their  use  of  colors,  were  evidently 
guided  by  this  principle  of  unity.     We  talk  of  their  coloring  as 
of  so  many  dyes;  when,  on  examining  their  works,  we  find 
that  they  did  not  use  decided  colors.     They  employed  tints  and 
hues  only ;  and  where  every  thing  introduced  in  a  subject  was 
made  subordinate  to  expression,  as  in  scenes  of  martyrdom,  the 
colors  used  are  perfectly  neutral  in  tone.     If,  in  any  subject, 


COMPOSITION.  155 

predominance  was  given  to  color,  great  care  was  taken  not  to 
overpower  the  eye  by  too  much  of  it.  The  tone-color  was 
cli-ur  and  decided,  but  sparingly  introduced,  and  all  others  com- 
bim-d  with  it,  were  subdued  according  to  the  laws  of  harmony 
and  unity. — (§  44,  §  45.) 

482.  Fuseli   says,  "By  the  choice  and   scenery  of  back- 
grounds, we  are  frequently  enabled  to  judge  how  far  a  painter 
entered  into  his  subject ;  whether  he  understood  its  nature  ;  to 
what  class  it  belonged ;  what  impression   it  was  capable  of 
making  ;  what  passion  it  was  calculated  to  rouse.     The  sedate, 
the  solemn,  the  severe,  the  awful,  the  terrible,  the  pleasing,  the 
solitary,  the  gay,  are  stamped  by  it.     Sometimes  it  should  be 
negative— entirely  subordinate,  receding  or  shrinking  into  itself. 
Sometimes  its  forms,  sometimes  its  colors,  ought  to  command. 
A  subject  in  itself,  bordering  on  the  usual  or  common,  may  be- 
come sublime  or  pathetic  by  the  back-ground  alone,  and  a  sub- 
lime or  pathetic  one,  may  become  trivial  and  uninteresting  by 
it."     The  student  will  readily  perceive,  that  no  definite  rules 
can  be  given  to  guide  him  in  this  department.     In  some  sub- 
jects, it  is  required  that  the  principal  figure  should  be  distinctly 
seen,  and  again  that  it  should  be  partially  lost  in  the  back- 
ground.    Success  depends  as  much  upon  an  eye  for  effect,  as 
upon  artistic  skill,     (m) 

483.  "  By  a  story  told  of  Rubens,  we  have  authority  for 
asserting,  that  to  the  effect  of  the  picture,  the  back-ground  is 
of  the  greatest  consequence.      He  was  once  offered  a  pupil, 
with  the  recommendation  of  being  already  so  advanced  in  the 
art,  that  he  could  immediately  assist  him  in  the  back-grounds." 
Rubens  smiled,  and  replied,  "  That  if  the  youth  was  capable  of 
painting  back-grounds,  he  did  not  need  his  instruction  ;  that  the 
regulation  and  management  of  them  required  the  most  com- 
prehensive knowledge  of  the  art."   (§  331.) 

484.  Costume  is  an  Italian  term,  signifying,  in  its  extended 
sense,  the  time,  the  manners,  the  customs,  the  taste,  the  dress, 


156  STUDY  OF   ART. 

the  arms,  as  well  as  the  character  of  a  country  and  its  peo- 
ple. 

485.  It  will  be  readily  seen,  that  the  study  of  costume  is  of 
great  importance  to  the  artist,  yet  he  must  be  careful  not  to  go 
too  much  into  detail  in  regard  to  time,  place,  etc.     The  pro- 
vince of  art  allows  him  a  certain  latitude,  of  which  he  must 
avail  himself,  if  he  would  make  a  pleasing  picture  ;  on  the  other 
hand,  he  must  be  careful  not  to  err  in  taking  too  much — be- 
tween the  two  extremes  he  will  be  guided  by  his  taste  and 
judgment,  rejecting  what  is  unnecessary  to  truth,  and  admitting 
all  appropriate  beauties  and  characteristics.     There  is,  perhaps, 
no  department  of  art,  where  taste  and  propriety  are  so  requisite, 
yet  many  instances  occur  among  works  of  the  great  masters, 
where  they  apparently  attached  no  importance  to  the  costume 
of  a  picture.     These  the  student  must  not  take  as  a  guide. 
For  instance,  a  picture  of  Eve,  having  her  hair  tied  with  blue 
ribbons  ;  or  the  Israelites,  represented  with   muskets,  as   in 
Tintoret's  picture  of  the  Falling  of  Manna. 

486.  In  many  works  of  art,  saints  are  introduced  in  the  same 
scenes  representing  the  Madonna  and  Savior.    This  is  approved 
on  the  ground  that  all  characters  who  have  become,  as  it  were, 
immortal  by  great  personal  distinction,  belong  as  much  to  one 
age  as  another. 

487.  In  studying  the  costume  of  a  picture,  we  learn  to  what 
the  artist  attached  most  importance :  whether  it  was  the  fashion 
of  the  day,  the  deceptive  imitation  of  some  manufactured  fabric, 
included  as  an  accessory,  or  the  scene  represented  with  regard 
to  its  peculiar  interest,  and  the  expression  of  character  elicited 
in  the  event  that  he  depicts  on  the  canvas.     The  costume  should 
be  true  to  the  subject,  but  never  made  so  prominent  as  to  divide 
the  interest  of  the  spectators  between  the  hero  of  the  story  and 
the  accessories  included.     Let  this  be  done,  and  the  unity  of 
the  composition  is  entirely  destroyed. 

488.  In  selecting  his  subject,  the  artist  must  carefully  consider 
whether  it  is  suited  to  the  language  of  his  art.     Whether  it  is 


COMPOSITION.  157 

picturesque.  The  painter  finds  that  by  imitating  those  works 
of  nature,  that  are  the  most  remote  from  the  formality  and  fresh- 
ness of  works  of  art,  he  produces  the  happiest  effect — makes  the 
most  pleasing  pictures.  Therefore  he  imitates  them.  Hence 
the  term  picturesque.  The  picturesque  is  so  varied  in  charac- 
ter as  to  be  easily  adapted  to  any  subject.  In  some  pictures  it 
is  the  most  prominent  characteristic.  In  others  a  more  subor- 
dinate feature. 

489.  Picturesque  figures  are  those  that  are  the  most  free 
from  the  restraints  of  habit  and  dress  that  belong  to  artificial 
life.     The   crippled  beggar  with  his  tattered  hat ;  the  ragged 
urchin  filling  his  pitcher  at  the  rippling  brook  ;  the  gipsy  girl 
with  her  gipsy  costume,  etc. 

490.  To  buildings,  the  picturesque  is  added  by  the  hand  of 
Time.     The  thatched  cottage  with  its  ragged  corners  and  fall- 
ing  chimney;  the  moss-grown  wall;  the  broken  bridge;    the 
old  mill-wheel ;  the  ivied  turret,  etc.     Time  makes  every  thing 
picturesque.      An  old  man  with  his  gray  locks  and  flowing 
beard  is  beautifully  picturesque ;  particularly,  if  his  dress  is 
marked  by  the  same  unsparing  hand. 

491.  If  the  subject  chosen  is  not  marked  by  this  essential 
element,  it  must  be  supplied  by  the  artist's  ideal,  which  admits 
of  no  direction.     Any  attempt  to  explain  the  ideal,  would  char- 
acterize it  as  idealism.   As  "  spiritual  things  must  be  spiritually 
discerned,"  so  ideal  things   must  be  ideally  discerned.     The 
ideal  is  as  distinct  from  ideaHsw,  as  the  spiritual  from  spiritual- 
asm  ;  or  the  sentiments  from  sentimentaU'sw. 

492.  For  excellence  in  every  department  of  art,  no  artist  excels 
Raffaelle,  and  no  artist  is  so  often  referred  to  by  authors  for  the 
purpose  of  illustrating  the  principles  of  invention  and  com- 
position. 

493.  Fuseli  says,  "The  power  of  Raffaelle's  invention  exerts  it- 
self chiefly  in  subjects  where  the  drama,  divested  of  epic  or  alle- 
goric fiction,  meets  pure  history,  and  elevates,  invigorates,  im- 
presses the  pregnant  moment  of  real  fact  with  character  and  pa* 


158  STUDY  OF  AKT. 

thos.  The  summit  of  these  is  that  magnificent  series  of  colored 
designs,  commonly  called  Cartoons.  They  represent  in  thirteen 
compositions,  the  origin,  sanction,  economy,  and  progress  of  the 
Christian  religion.  In  whate\7er  light  we  consider  their  invention, 
as  parts  of  one  whole  relative  to  each  other,  or  independent  each 
of  the  rest,  and  as  single  subjects,  there  can  be  scarcely  named 
a  beauty  or  a  mystery  of  which  the  Cartoons  furnish  not  an  in- 
stance or  a  clew ;  they  are  poised  between  perspicuity  and 
pregnancy  of  moment ;  we  shall  have  opportunities  to  speak  of 
all,  or  the  greater  part  of  them,  but  that  of  Paul  on  the  Areo- 
pagus will  furnish  us  at  present  with  conclusions  for  the  remain- 
der. 

494.  "  It  represents  the  Apostle  announcing  his  God  from  the 
heights  of  the  Areopagus.   Enthusiasm  and  curiosity  make  up  the 
subject ;  simplicity  of  attitude  invests  the  speaker  with  sublim- 
ity ;  the  parallelism  of  his  action  invigorates  his  energy ;  situa- 
tion gives  him  command  over  the  whole ;  the  light  in  which  he 
is  placed,  attracts  the  first  glance ;  he  appears  the  organ  of  a 
superior  Power.     The  assembly,  though  selected  with  charac- 
teristic art  for  the  purpose,  are  the  natural  offspring  of  place 
and  moment.     The  involved  meditation  of  the  stoic,  the  cynic's 
ironic  sneer,  the  incredulous  smile  of  the  elegant  epicurean,  the 
eager  disputants  of   the  academy,  the  elevated  attention  of 
Plato's  school,  the  rankling  malice  of  the  rabbi,  the  magician's 
mysterious  glance,  repeat  in  louder  or  in  lower  tones  the  novel 
doctrine  ;  but  whilst  curiosity  and  meditation,  loud  debate  and 
fixed  prejudice,  tell,  ponder  on,  repeat,  reject,  discuss  it,  the 
animated   gesture   of  conviction   in   Dionysius   and   Damaris, 
announce  the  power  of  its  tenets,  and  hint  the  established  belief 
of  immortality" 

495.  Haydon,  in  speaking  of  the  Cartoon,  of  giving  the  keys, 
says,  "  At  Peter's  earnest  inquiry,  whether  he  was  beloved  by 
his  master,  the  reply  he  received  was,  '  Feed  my  sheep.' 

496.  "  At  this  simple  command,  such  as  seen  in  this  Cartoon, 
were  the  expressions,  the  characters,  the  actions,  the  grace,  the 


COMPOSITION.  159 

composition,  the  beauty,  the  sentiments  and  scenery,  which  in- 
stantly filled  the  imagination  of  Raffaelle. 

497.  "  In  the  hands  of  an  ordinary  painter,  what  could  have 
been  done  with  '  Feed  my  sheep.'     But  it  is  the  inherent  power 
of  conceiving  from  such  simple  suggestions,  and  what  from  the 
circumstances   of  the   case  must  have  happened,  which  ever 
marks  the  great  capacity  from  the  ordinary  academic  graduate 
of  the  grand  style. 

498.  "  Painters  had  ever  better  thus  choose  subjects  from  a 
suggesting  line,  than  merely  fill  up  the  characters  the  poets  have 
previously  pictured  for  them.     Poets  should  only  be  called  in  as 
assistants. 

499.  "  Painters  degrade  their  art  if  they  do  nothing  but 
realize  the  conceptions  of  the  poet ;  they  should  shew,  by  every 
subject  they  paint,  that  nature  has  given  them  the  same  power 
of  imagination,  the  same  fertility  of  thought,  the  same  capability 
of  exciting  sympathy  by  the  characters  and  expressions  they 
display,  with  this  advantage,  that  the  language  of  the  painter 
needs  no  translation  to  be  comprehended  by  other  nations. 

500.  "  Painters,  if  they  borrow  from  poetry  or  history,  should 
ever   take   a   suggesting   line,  and   by  adding,  inventing,  and 
adapting  from  nature,  prove  the  right  their  art  has  to  be  con- 
sidered one  of  the  legitimate,  if  not  the  elder  sister  of  poetry. 
Could  any  man  have  believed  that,  without  the  graces  of  women, 
any  subject  could  have  been  made  so  interesting  and  delightful 
as  Raffaelle  has  made  this  ?     Few  but  RafFaelle  have  ever  done 
it,  none  but  great  geniuses  could  ever  do  it,  for  by  none  but 
by  such  can  it  ever  be  done. 

501.  "  What  it  wants  in  variety  of  character,  as  to  sex  and 
age,  he  has  supplied  by  exhibiting  the  various  ways  in  which 
different  temperaments  are  affected  by  the  same  thing.   What  in 
picturesque  beauty  of  dress,  by  infinite  variations  of  the  same 
dress  affected  by  variety  of  action,  which  is  the  result  of  differ- 
ent sensation  acting  on  the  figure ;  and  by  harmony  of  color 
and  by   arrangement,  he  has  made  it  very  little  less  full  of 
attraction  than  any  other  of  the  Cartoons. 


160  STUDY    OF   ART. 

502.  "  Christ  is  the  first  figure  which  attracts,  standing  in  an 
unaffected  and  simple  manner,  not  resting  on  one  leg  and  throw- 
ing the  whole  behind,  like  the  eternal  action  of  the  run  of 
antique  figures,  but  as  all  men  generally  stand  when  they  are 
not  standing  to  be  seen,  and  only  as  their  convenience  or  ease 
induces  them.     His  expression  has  a  mixture  of  melancholy 
and  pathos,  beautifully  touching ;  it  is  the  finest  head  of  Christ 
in  all  the  Cartoons. 

503.  "  He  is  pointing  to  a  flock  of  sheep,  indicative  of  the 
text,  and  to  the  keys  in  Peter's  hand,  as  connecting  him  with 
the  Catholic  church  ;  St.  Peter  being  the  head  of  it. 

504.  "  St.  Peter  is  on  his  knees,  watching  with  eagerness  the 
looks  of  his  Divine  Master,  and  listening  with  an  inquiring  sub- 
mission to  the  utterance  of  his  will. 

505.  "  St.  John  presses  forward  full  of  anxiety  and  affection, 
his   hands  up,  as  if  in  adoration ;  his  nose,  eye,  and  mouth, 
motion,  action,  and  expression,  denoting  regard,  as  lovely  and 
as  delicate  as  the  soul  of  the  divine  painter  who  conceived  and 
painted  him. 

506.  "  Though  Kaffaelle's  St.  Johns  are  built  on  the  St.  John 
of  all  the  great  painters,  from  Cimabue  downwards,  yet  Raf- 
faelle  added  a  beauty  they  all  missed,  and  which  would  have 
rendered  all  representations  of  him   incomplete  without  this 
addition.     He  seems  to  say  :  '  Do  not  think  I  have  less  love  of 
thee  than  another ;  believe  me  as  intensely  devoted,  O,  divine 
master!   as   the   apostle  to  whom   thou   hast   committed   this 
charge/ 

507.  "  Another  apostle,  by  his  side,  seems  to  lift  his  hands  in 
rather  envious  astonishment ;  the  one  behind  is  rather  pressing 
forward  towards  Christ  with  affection  ;  the  next  turns  round  to 
his  companions  with  simple  wonder  and  inquiry,  and,  without 
speaking,  looks  with  a  scrutinizing  rigor,  first  to  ascertain  what 
the  other  thinks  by  his  air,  before  he  ventures  an  opinion ; 
while  the  other,  with  graceful  simplicity,  is  holding  his  robe, 
and  expressing  also  surprise,  but  mingled  with  pleasure. 

508.  "  The  one  immediately  behind  this  last  is  too  far  off  to 


COMPOSITION.  161 

comprehend  or  hear  exactly  what  is  passing,  and,  with  his  head 
half  dropped,  he  seems  in  a  breathless  mixture  of  half-eye  and 
half-ear,  to  make  out,  as  well  as  he  can,  what  is  happening  in 
front :  he  is  so  placed  that  he  could  see  Jesus  between  the  head 
of  the  others,  but  is  scarcely  near  enough  to  hear  him. 

509.  "Of  the  remaining  three,  the  hair  only  of  one  is  seen ; 
and  the  faces  of  the  two  others  denote  no  particular  emotion. 
This  skillfully  exhibits  the  interest  dying  away,  as  it  were,  the 
further  it  is  removed  from  the  cause  of  excitement. 

510.  "  By  studying  carefully  the  figure  of  Christ,  as  a  compo- 
sition, immense  knowledge  may  be  gained  to  all.     It  is  a  fine 
example  of  management,  so  as  to  present  a  single  figure  coming 
flatly  and  meagrely  on  its  background. 

511.  "  On  the  left  side,  see  how  rich  and  full  it  is  by  the 
great  variety  of  shapes  produced  by  the  folds  of  the  drapery ; 
then  comes  part  of  a  sheep  feeding ;  and  then  some  weeds,  while 
a  creek,  running  in  from  the  lake,  crosses  the  left  hand  at  the 
thumb-joint ;  and  again,  the  other  line  of  this  creek  goes  from 
the  inside  of  the  elbow  to  the  drapery ;  all  these  produce  a 
variety  of  quantities  as  to  shape  and  figure,  and  break  the 
meagre  line  of  a  naked  arm,  and  take  off  the  perpendicular  and 
angular  endings  of  contours,  which  the  drapery  of  Christ,  on 
this  side,  would  produce.     On  the  other  side,  the  right  hand 
issues  from  a  mass  of  broad  drapery ;  and  the  flock  of  sheep, 
by  their  heads  and  bodies,  break  the  uniformity  of  shape,  which 
there  would  be,  if  it  had  nothing  but  a  flat  surface. 

512.  "  This  is  what  is  called  supporting  a  figure,  preventing 
it  rising  abruptly  out  of  the  background,  which  would  be  the 
case  if  there  were  nothing  behind  but  a  flat  surface,  and  nothing 
between  the  figure  and  distant  objects.     It  can  be  done  by  light 
and  shadow,  or  by  line ;  it  was  this  which  Sir  Joshua  so  admi- 
rably understood,  because  he  studied  the  great  works  of  Raf- 
faelle,  and  took  up  portrait,  as  Burke  said,  as  if  he  had  descend- 
ed from  a  higher  department. 

513.  *  *  *  "  Raffaelle's  great  basis  was  that  the  eye  must  be 
carried  from  one  part  to  another,  from  one  quantity  to  another ; 


162  STUDY   OF   ART. 

then  there  must  be  vacuities  to  give  value  to  the  projecting 
masses ;  and  then  no  mass  must  be  of  the  same  size,  but  one 
must  predominate,  as  well  as  one  light,  one  shadow,  one  figure, 
one  color,  and  one  line.  To  accomplish  the  effect  required,  he 
made  great  use  of  drapery.  *  *  *. 

514.  "Raffaelle's  great  excellence  being  expression,  and  the 
head,  whereon  expression  lies,  being  little  as  to  mass,  he  could 
always  put  heads  into  any  part,  and  supply  their  deficiency  as 
to  mass  by  quantities  of  other  materials  about  or  beneath  them ; 
therefore,  he  was  never  obliged  to  sacrifice  that  in  which  his 
chief  excellence  lay,  for  the  sake  of  composition ;  while  those 
who  rest  their  reputation  in  beauty  of  figure,  will  often  find 
themselves  condemned  to  cover,  for  the  sake  of  harmony  of 
effect,  many  a  beautiful  body,  and  many  a  beautiful  limb  indi- 
vidually considered,  but  which  are  often  not  of  size  enough  in 
the  masses  to  be  kept ;  and  thus  they  are  obliged  to  sacrifice 
what  they  were,  perhaps,  most  qualified  to  represent. 

515.  "The  same  bit  of  road  which  crosses  behind  Christ's 
right  shoulder  passes  out  behind  his  left,  and  cuts,  at  gentle 
angles,  the  hand  of  the  astonished  Apostle  next  St.  John.     On 
that  road  there  are  two  small  figures,  the  want  of  which  would 
be  felt,  as  they  connect  this  hand  and  the  shoulder  of  Christ, 
and  prevent  there  being  too  great  a  distance  between  them, 
which  is  always  painful. 

516.  Every  hand,  and  head,  and  line,  throughout  this  Car- 
toon, is  placed  on  this  principle.     Lines   and  inclinations  of 
figures  must  be   repeated  like  color,  especially  the  predomi- 
nating line  or  color  of  the  principal  figure :  thus  St.  Peter  and 
St.  John  leaning  forward,  by  their  inclination,  as  lines,  repeat 
that  of  Christ's  drapery,  etc. ;  then  the  bit  of  a  creek,  which 
so  beautifully  by  its  bank  crosses  and  connects  the  line  of  the 
left  hand  of  Christ  to  the  face  of  St.  Peter,  comes  out  again  at 
the  back  of  the  last  figure  of  all ;  and  then  a  bit  of  drapery 
cutting  the  even  line  of  the  last  back,  prevents  the  back  coming 
perpendicularly  against  the  boat,  which  carries  the  composition 


COMPOSITION.  163 

right  out  of  the  picture.     The  boat,  too,  shows  that  they  have 
just  been  fishing,  and  have  just  landed. 

517.  "Every  bit  of  weed,  line  of  ground,  town,  house,  tree, 
or  drapery  is  introduced  for  these  purposes ;  and  yet  so  con- 
trived as  to  have  the  appearance  of  being  the  natural  conse- 
quences of  natural  causes,  independently  of  all  art  or  manage- 
ment."* (n) 

518.  Allston  draws  a  comparison  between  Raffaelle  and  Os 
tade :  "  The  interior  of  a  Dutch  cottage  forms  the  scene  of 
Ostade's  work,  presenting  something  between  a  kitchen  and  a 
stable.    Its  principal  object  is  the  carcass  of  a  hog,  newly  washed 
and  hung  up  to  dry ;  subordinate  to  which,  is  a  woman  nursing 
an   infant;    the   accessories,  various    pots,  kettles,  and  other 
culinary  utensils. 

519.  "  The  bare  enumeration  of  these  coarse  materials  would 
naturally  predispose  the  mind  of  one  unacquainted  with  the 
Dutch  school  to  expect  anything  but  pleasure ;  indifference,  not  to 
say  disgust,  would  seem  to  be  the  only  impression  from  a  picture 
composed  of  such  ingredients.  And  such,  indeed,  would  be  their 
effect  under  the  hand  of  any  but  a  real  artist.     Let  us  look  into 
the  picture  and  follow  Ostade's  mind,  as  it  leaves  its  impress 
on  the  several  objects.     Observe  how  he  spreads  his  principal 
light,  from  the  suspended  carcass  to  the  surrounding  objects, 
moulding  it,  so  to  speak,  into  agreeable  shapes  ;  here  by  extend- 
ing it  to  a  bit  of  drapery,  there  to  an   earthen-pot ;  then  con- 
necting it,  by  the  flash  from  a  brass  kettle,  with  his  second  light, 
the  woman  and  child ;  and  again,  turning  the  eye  into  the  dark 
recesses,  thro  ugh  the  labyrinth  of  broken  chairs,  old  baskets,  roost- 
ing fowls,  and  bits  of  straw,  till  a  glimpse  of  sunshine  from  a 
half-open  window  gleams  on  the   eye,  as  it  were,  like  an  echo, 
and  sending  it  back  to  the  principal  object,  which  now  seems 
to  act  on  the  mind  as  the  luminous  source  of  all  these  diverg- 
ing lights.     But  the  magical  whole  is  not  yet  completed ;  the 
mystery  of  color  has  been  called  in  to  the  aid  of  light,  and  so 

*  B.  R.  Haydon's  Lectures. 


164:  STUDY   OF  ART. 

subtly  blends  that  we  can  hardly  separate  them ;  at  least  until 
their  united  effect  has  first  been  felt,  and  after  we  have  begun 
the  process  of  cold  analysis.  Yet,  even  then,  we  cannot  long 
proceed,  before  we  find  the  charm  returning ;  as  we  pass  from 
the  blaze  of  light  on  the  carcass,  where  all  the  tints  of  the  prism 
seem  faintly  subdued,  we  are  met  on  the  borders  by  the  dark 
hurslet,  glowing  like  rubies ;  then  we  repose  a  while  on  the 
white  cap  and  kerchief  of  the  nursing  mother;  then  we  are 
roused  again  by  the  flickering  strife  of  the  antagonist  colors  on 
a  blue  jacket  and  red  petticoat ;  then  the  strife  is  softened  by 
the  low  yellow  of  a  straw-bottomed  chair ;  and  thus  with  alter- 
nating excitement  and  repose  do  we  travel  through  the  picture, 
till  the  scientific  explorer  loses  the  analyst  in  the  unresisting 
passiveness  of  a  poetic  dream.  Now  all  this  will,  no  doubt, 
appear  to  many,  if  not  absurd,  at  least  exaggerated ;  but  not  to 
those  who  have  ever  felt  the  sorcery  of  color.  They,  we  are 
sure,  will  be  the  last  to  question  the  character  of  the  feeling 
because  of  the  ingredients  which  worked  the  spell,  and  if  true 
to  themselves  they  must  call  it  poetry.  Nor  will  they  consider 
it  any  disparagement  to  the  all-accomplished  Raffaelle  to  say 
of  Ostade,  that  he  also  was  an  artist. 

520.  "  We  turn  now  to  a  work  of  the  great  Italian — the  death 
of  Ananias.  The  scene  is  laid  in  a  plain  apartment,  which  is 
wholly  devoid  of  ornament,  as  became  the  hall  of  audience  of 
the  primitive  Christians.  The  Apostles  (then  eleven  in  num- 
ber), have  assembled  to  transact  the  temporal  business  of  the 
church,  and  are  standing  together  on  a  slightly  elevated  plat- 
form, about  which,  in  various  attitudes,  some  standing,  others 
kneeling,  is  gathered  a  promiscuous  assemblage  of  their  new 
converts,  male  and  female.  This  quiet  assembly  (for  we  still 
feel  its  quietness  in  the  midst  of  the  awful  judgment)  is  sud- 
denly roused  by  the  sudden  fall  of  one  of  their  brethren  :  some 
of  them  turn  to  see  him  struggling  in  the  agonies  of  death.  A 
moment  before  he  was  in  the  vigor  of  life,  as  his  muscular 
limbs  still  bear  evidence  ;  but  he  had  uttered  a  falsehood,  and 
an  instant  after  his  frame  is  convulsed  from  head  to  foot.  Nor 


COMPOSITION.  165 

do  we  doubt  for  a  moment  as  to  the  awful  cause  :  it  is  almost 
expressed  in  voice  by  those  nearest  to  him,  and  though  varied 
by  their  different  temperaments,  by  terror,  astonishment,  and 
submissive  faith,  this  voice  has  yet  but  one  meaning :  "  Ananias 
has  lied  to  the  Holy  Ghost."  The  terrible  words,  as  if  audible 
to  the  mind,  now  direct  us  to  him  who  pronounced  his  doom, 
and  the  singly  raised  finger  of  the  Apostle  marks  him  the  judge  ; 
yet  not  of  himself — for  neither  his  attitude,  air,  nor  expression, 
has  anything  in  unison  with  the  impetuous  Peter — he  is  now 
the  simple,  passive,  yet  awful  instrument  of  the  Almighty; 
while  another  on  the  right,  with  equal  calmness,  though  with 
more  severity,  by  his  elevated  arm,  as  belonging  to  judgment, 
anticipates  the  fate  of  the  entering  Saphira.  Yet  all  is  not 
done  :  lest  a  question  remain,  the  Apostle  on  the  left  confirms 
the  judgment.  No  one  can  mistake  what  passes  within  him ; 
like  one  transfixed  in  adoration,  his  uplifted  eyes  seem  to  ray 
out  his  soul,  as  if  in  recognition  of  the  divine  tribunal.  But 
the  overpowering  thought  of  omnipotence  is  now  tempered  by 
the  human  sympathy  of  his  companion,  whose  open  hands, 
connecting  the  past  with  the  present,  seem  almost  to  articulate, 
"  Alas,  my  brother ! "  By  this  exquisite  turn  we  are  next 
brought  to  John,  the  gentle  almoner  of  the  church,  who  is 
dealing  out  their  portions  to  the  needy  brethren.  And  here,  as 
most  remote  from  the  judged  Ananias,  whose  sufferings  seem 
not  yet  to  have  reached  it,  we  find  a  spot  of  repose — not  to  pass 
by,  but  to  linger  upon,  till  we  feel  its  quiet  influence  diffusing 
itself  over  the  whole  mind ;  nay,  till  connecting  it  with  the  be- 
loved disciple,  we  find  it  leading  us  back  through  the  exciting 
scene,  modifying  even  our  deepest  emotions  with  a  kindred 
tranquillity. 

521.  "This  is  invention  :  we  have  not  moved  a  step  through 
the  picture  but  at  the  will  of  the  artist.  He  invented  the  chain 
which  we  have  followed  link  by  link,  through  every  emotion, 
assimilating  many  into  one ;  and  this  is  the  secret  by  which  he 
prepared  us,  without  exciting  horror,  to  contemplate  the  strug- 
gle of  mortal  agony. 


166  STUDY  OF   ART. 

522.  "  This,  too,  is  art ;  and  the  highest  art,  when  thus  the 
awful  power,  without  losing  its  character,  is  tempered,  as  it 
were,  to  our  mysterious  desires.     In  the  work  of  Ostade  we 
see  the  same  inventive  power,  no  less  effective,  though  acting 
through  the  medium  of  the  humblest  materials. 

523.  "We  have  now  exhibited   two  pictures,  and   by  two 
painters  who  may  be  said  to  stand  at  opposite  poles.     And  yet, 
widely  apart  as  are  their  apparent  stations,  they  are,  neverthe- 
less, tenants  of  the  same  ground — namely,  actual  nature ;  the 
only  difference  being,  that  one  is  the  sovereign  of  the  purely 
physical,  and  the  other  of  the  moral  and  intellectual,  while  their 
common  medium  is  the  catholic  ground  of  the  imagination. 

524.  "  We  do  not  fear  either  skeptical  demur  or  direct  con- 
tradiction when  we  assert  that  the  imagination  is  as  much  the 
medium  of  the  homely  Ostade,  as  of  the  refined  Raffaelle.    For, 
what  is  that  which  has  just  wrapped  us  as  in  a  spell  when  we 
entered  his  humble  cottage — which,  as  we  wandered  through  it, 
invested  the  coarsest  object  with  a  strange  charm  ?      Was  it 
the  truth  of  these  objects  that  we  there  acknowledged  ?     In 
part,  certainly ;  but  not  simply  the  truth  that  belongs  to  their 
originals  :  it  was  the  truth  of  "his  own  individual  mind  super- 
added  to  that  of  nature,  nay,  clothed  upon  besides  by  his  ima- 
gination, imbuing  it  with  all  the  poetic  hues  which  float  in  the 
opposite  regions  of  night  and  day,  and  which  only  a  poet  can 
mingle  and  make  visible  in  one  pervading  atmosphere.     To  all 
this  our  own  minds,  our  own  imaginations  respond,  and  we 
pronounce  it  true  to  both.     We  have  no  other  rule,  and  well 
may  the  artist  of  every  age  and  country  thank  the  great  Law- 
giver that  there  is  no  other.     The  despised  feeling  which  the 
schools  have  scouted,  is  yet  the  mother  of  that  science  of  which 
they  vainly  boast." 

525.  Raffaelle's  Dresden  Madonna  is  much  more  familiar  to 
the  public  from  the  numerous  prints  of  it,  that  are  scattered 
everywhere.     Of  this  Mrs.  Jameson  writes — "  On  entering  the 
gallery  for  the  first  time,  I  walked  straight  forward,  without 
pausing  or  turning  to  the  right  or  the  left,  into  the  Raffaelle  room, 


COMPOSITION.  167 

and  looked  for  the  Madonna  del  Sisto — literally  with  a  kind  of 
misgiving.  Familiar  as  the  form  might  be  to  the  eye  and  the 
fancy,  from  the  numerous  copies  and  prints,  still,  the  unknown 
original  had  a  sanctuary  in  my  imagination  like  the  mystic  Isis 
behind  her  veil :  and  it  seemed  that  whatever  I  beheld  of  lovely, 
or  perfect,  or  soul-speaking,  in  art,  had  an  unrevealed  rival  in 
my  imagination :  something  was  beyond — there  was  a  criterion 
of  possible  excellence  as  yet  only  conjectured — for  I  had  not 
seen  the  Madonna  del  Sisto.  Now  when  I  was  about  to  lift  my 
eyes  to  it,  I  literally  hesitated.  I  drew  a  long  sigh,  as  if  resign- 
ing myself  to  disappointment,  and  looked. — Yes !  there  she  was, 
indeed !  that  divinest  image  that  ever  shaped  itself  in  palpable 
hues  and  forms  to  the  living  eye  !  What  a  revelation  of  ineffa- 
ble grace  and  purity,  and  truth,  and  goodness  !  There  is  no  use 
attempting  to  say  anything  about  it.  Too  much  has  already 
been  said  and  written — and  what  are  words  ?  After  gazing  on 
it  again  and  again,  day  after  day,  I  feel  that  to  attempt  to 
describe  the  impression  is  like  measuring  the  infinite,  and  sound- 
ing the  unfathomable.  When  I  looked  up  at  it  to-day,  it  gave 
me  the  idea,  or  rather  the  feeling  of  a  vision  descending  and 
floating  down  upon  me.  The  head  of  the  virgin  is  quite 
super-human ;  to  say  that  it  is  beautiful  gives  no  idea  of  it. 
Some  of  Corregio's  and  Guide's  virgins — the  virgin  of  Murillo, 
at  the  Leuchtenberg  palace,  have  more  beauty,  in  the  common 
meaning  of  the  word ;  but  every  other  female  face,  however 
lovely,  however  majestic,  would,  I  am  convinced,  appear  either 
trite  or  exaggerated,  if  brought  into  immediate  comparison  with 
this  divine  countenance.  There  is  such  a  blessed  calm  in  every 
feature !  and  the  eyes,  beaming  with  a  kind  of  internal  light, 
look  straight  out  of  the  picture — not  at  you  or  me,  nor  anything 
belonging  to  this  world,  but  through  and  through  the  universe. 
The  unearthly  child  is  a  sublime  vision  of  power  and  grandeur, 
and  seems  not  so  much  supported  as  enthroned  in  her  arms ; 
and  what  fitter  throne  for  a  divinity  than  a  woman's  bosom  full 
of  innocence  and  love  ?  The  expression  in  the  face  of  St.  Bar- 
bara, who  looks  down,  has  been  differently  interpreted :  to  me 


168  STUDY  OF  ART. 

she  seems  to  be  giving  a  last  look  at  the  earth,  above  which  a 
group  is  raised  as  on  a  hovering  cloud.  St.  Sixtus  is  evidently 
pleading,  in  all  the  combined  fervor  of  faith,  hope,  and  charity, 
for  the  congregation  of  sinners,  who  are  supposed  to  be  kneel- 
ing before  the  picture — that  is,  for  us,  to  whom  he  points. 
Finally,  the  cherubs  below,  with  their  upward  look  of  rapture 
and  wonder,  blending  the  most  childish  innocence  with  a  sub- 
lime inspiration,  complete  the  harmonious  whole,  uniting  heaven 
with  earth." 

526.  This  favorite  picture,  even  in  the  indifferent  prints  of 
it,  is  a  fine  subject  for  study.     The  harmony  of  line  combined 
in  every  part  is  one  of  its  most  attractive  features,  and  would 
charm  the  eye,  if  nothing  more  meritorious  were  superadded. 
The  conception  is  ideal — the  treatment  is  ideal — in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  subject  the  rules  of  art  are  carefully  observed, 
and  nothing  could  exceed  the  exquisite  harmony  and  unity  of 
the  composition. 

527.  Let  the  student  analyze  this  picture  as  a  composition, 
with  reference  to  his  own  improvement,  in  regard  to  the  use  of 
line,  light,  and  shade,  etc.     He  cannot  mistake  the  principal 
figures,  the  mother  and  child  Jesus,  made  most  conspicuous  by 
contrasting  the  purest  earthly  purity  with  the  purer  heaven 
beyond.    The  dark  line  on  the  lower  margin  of  the  picture  rep- 
resents the  world,  above  which  they  soar  towards  heaven,  whose 
curtains   are  withdrawn   to   receive  them,  at  the   same  time 
revealing  to  our  view  the  angels  that  are  to  give  them  welcome. 
They  are  already  detached  from  the  world,  and  above  it.     By 
the  clouds  that  partly  envelope  the  two  other  figures  included 
in  the  same  scene,  is  expressed  the  difference  in  their  positions ; 
they,  being  still  somewhat  entangled  with  it.     In  the  attitude 
of  the  little  figures  that  complete  the  group,  we  see  that  they 
are   stationary,  and  can  be  none  other  than  guardian  angels. 
The  tower  seen  over  the  shoulder  of  the  second  female  figure, 
marks  her  for  St.  Barbara.     The  triple  crown  is  an  accessory, 
and  placed  where  it  is,  expresses  the  Pope's  supremacy,  whose 
dominion  is  guarded  by  the  angels  of  God. 


COMPOSITION.  169 

528.  The  young  artist  will  gain  much  by  studying  the  best 
pictures  of  the  best  masters.     In  doing  this,  he  must  not  forget 
that  rules  always  admit  of  variations  and  exceptions;  principles, 
never.     It  is  only  those  who  understand  both  rules  and  prin- 
ciples who  can  venture  successfully  on  the  variations.     In  one 
of  Raffaelle's  Holy  Families,  Mary  and  Jesus  receive  the  prin- 
cipal light,  Elizabeth  and  John  the  next,  Joseph  the  next,  and 
then  the  attending  angels. 

529.  Corregio's  Notte  is  a  fine  example  of  super-natural  light. 
The  light  in  the  picture  emanates  from  the  child,  according  to 
the  words  of  Christ :  "  I  am  come  a  light  into  the  world."     The 
effect  given  by  the  artist  expresses  the  sensation  produced  upon 
the  shepherds,  who  have  come  to  see  the  fulfilment  of  the  decla- 
ration made  to  them  by  the  angel,  as  they  watched  their  flocks 
by  night :  "  Fear  not ;  for  behold,  I  bring  you  good  tidings  of 
great  joy,  which  shall  be  to  all  people ;  for  unto  you  is  born, 
this  day,  in  the  city  of  David,  a  Savior,  which  is  Christ  the 
Lord.     And  this  shall  be  a  sign  unto  you.     Ye  shall  find  the 
babe  wrapped  in  swaddling-clothes,  lying  in  a  manger.  *  *  * 
And  they  came  with  haste,  and  found  the  babe  lying  in  a 
manger."     Choosing  his  point  of  time  in  the  night,  or,  rather, 
just  at  the  dawn  of  day,  as  expressed  in  the  distance,  gave  the 
artist  an  opportunity  for  giving  an  original  and  powerful  effect 
in  the  treatment  of  his  subject. 

530.  We  have  now  considered  the  studies  essential  to  an 
artist,  and  the  laws  that  regulated  the  practice  of  those  painters 
called  masters,  and  founders  of  schools.     And  we  find  that 
every  rule  of  art  has  its  foundation  in  some  law  of  nature, 
either  physical  or  mental.     This  knowledge  gives  a  deeper 
meaning  and  interest  to  those  great  works  of  art,  which,  to  one 
ignorant  of  the  rules  that  govern  its  practice,  appear  to  have 
been  accomplished  without  any  study  of  arrangement ;  and  it 
also  proves  the  theory  upon  which  we  started ;  viz. :  that  truth 
to  nature  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  imitative  art. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   PICTURES. 

531.  PICTURES  are  divided  into  several  classes ;  such  as 
History,  Portrait,  Landscape,  Animals,  Game-Pieces,  Still-Life, 
Fruit  and  Flower-Pieces.     These  again  are  subdivided  accord- 
ing to  the  character  or  style  of  subject. 

532.  The  first  class,  historical  pictures,  comprehends  repre- 
sentations of  scenes,  real  or  fabulous,  sacred  or  profane,  of 
which  accounts  have  been  made  public.     If  the  subjects  are 
taken  from  the  scriptures,  or  the  legendary  lives  of  saints,  they 
are  termed  sacred.     If  from  modern  or  classical  history,  or 
from  the  fables  of  ancient  mythology,  they  are  termed  profane. 
The  rules,  for  historical  painting,  include  all  that  belongs  to  art 
proper,  and  should  govern  the  practice  of  art  in  all  its  various 
classes. 

533.  Portrait  painting  ranks  next  to  historical  in  works  of 
art.     In  the  historical  pictures  of  the  fifteenth  century,  portraits 
of  the   prominent   men   of  the   time   were   introduced.     The 
greatest  designers  and  composers  were  employed  in  portrait 
painting. 

534.  Landscape  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  departments  of 
art.     No  one  admits  of  greater  variety  in  the  subject,  or  greater 
variety  in  the  treatment. 

535.  The  class  of  paintings  designated  as  familiar  life,  is 
neither  history,  portrait,  nor  landscape,  and  includes  a  great 
variety  of  subjects,  comprising  all  taken  from  common  life, 
whether  real  or  fictions.     It  is  the  popular,  every  day  side  of 
art,  contrasted  with  sacred  and  profane  history,  or  poetical  and 
devotional  subjects. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   PICTURES.  171 

536.  Still-life  pictures  comprise  all  inanimate  objects ;  such 
as  household  furniture,  musical  instruments,  and  the  like,  in 
endless  variety.     This  forms  the  most  inferior  class,  and  seldom 
engages  the  attention  of  eminent  artists. 

537.  Living  animals  are  seldom  well  represented.     It  is  a 
much  more  difficult  art  than  is  generally  supposed,  and  but  few 
have  excelled  in  it.     This  class  includes  hunting-pieces. 

538.  Culinary-pieces  are  those  which  represent  all  varieties 
of  provision,  dead-game,  fish,  etc.     This  branch  is  inferior  to 
the  former,  and  is  seldom  practiced  with  effect. 

539.  Fruit  and  flower-pieces,   form   another   class,  and  an 
agreeable  branch  of  painting.     To  this  class,  birds  and  insects 
naturally  belong,  and  add  a  pleasing  variety. 

540.  Sea-views  form  a  class  of  pictures  in  which  few  excel. 
They  are  generally  made  cold  in  color,  and  want  the  effect  of  fore- 
ground.    By  the  addition  of  fore-ground,  a  pleasing  variety  is 
obtained  :  an  essential  requisite  in  all  good  compositions.     Not 
only  a  variety  in  objects,  but  a  variety  in  color.     The  water,  on 
a  western  shore,  takes  the  reflection  of  the  rising  sun,  and,  on 
the  eastern  shore,  that  of  the  setting  sun,  in  every  variety  of 
tint  and  hue,  giving  a  warm  and  beautiful  effect  to  the  waves, 
and  affording  a  fine  variety  of  tints  for  the  colorist.     Like 
landscapes,  sea-views  require  the  introduction  of  figures  to  give 
them  interest.     In  color,  the  clouds  should  harmonize  with  the 
tone   of  the   picture.      They  vary  in  hue  with  the  varying 
seasons. 

541.  Moonlight  is  seldom  attempted.     None  but  a  poetic 
painter  can  succeed  in  the  representation  of  moonlight.     The 
conception  of  the  subject  depends  much  upon  the  imagination, 
and  the  treatment  of  it  must  be  perfectly  ideal. 

542.  All  genuine  works  are  marked  by  the  mind  that  origi- 
nates them.     Hence,  the  styles  of  painting  are  as  various  as 
designers,  among  which  may  be  enumerated  as  the  principal 
and'  most  general,  the  grand,  the  sublime,  the  ideal,  the  orna- 
mental, the  rural,  and  the  picturesque. 


172  STUDY  OF  ART. 

543.  The    elements  of  the   grand   style   are,  simplicity  of 
arrangement,  perspicuity  in  telling  the  story,  sobriety  of  color, 
and  lofty  expression.     The  introduction  of  familiar  objects  in 
this  style,  destroys  its  effect. 

544.  In  landscape,  the  grand  style  requires  that  the  objects 
introduced  should  be  large  and  massive,  and  the  situation  so 
chosen  as  to  exclude  the  access  of  general  or  diffusive  light. 
This  effect  is  best  produced  in  the  evening  or  the  early  morn- 
ing, because  the  position  of  the  light  then  gives  depth  of  shade 
and  extensive  shadows.     In  addition  to  this,  the  vapor  that 
softens  and  obscures  the  scene,  contributes  to  the  expression  of 
vastness  essential  to  grandeur. 

545.  This  style  includes  everything  in  nature  that  is  grand 
or  extraordinary.     Rapid  and  foaming  torrents,  mountains  that 
have  been  riven  by  the  earthquake,  the  storm  that  in  its  fury 
tears  up  every  tree  and  shrub,  or  dashes  the  ship  on  the  rock. 
In  treating  subjects  of  this  class,  the  artist  is  in  danger  of  falling 
into  exaggeration.     When  well  managed,  the  effect  is  highly 
pleasing ;  but  success  in  this  style  requires  the  highest  effort  of 
mental  power,  aided  by  artistic  skill. 

546.  The  sublime  style  unites  force  with  grandeur,  which 
produces  a  sudden  and  powerful  effect,  and  so  commands  the 
attention  as  to  gain  a  strong  hold  upon  the  mind.     Simplicity 
eminently  belongs  to  the  sublime.     Simplicity  of  intention,  of 
action,  and  of  means.     Also  a  unity  of  intention,  sentiment, 
and  action.     Generally  speaking,  a  few  objects  clearly  arranged, 
an  undivided  light,  a  subdued  color,  and  a  harmony  of  parts  are 
essential  to  the  sublime  style.     To  which  we  may  add,  a  great 
mind,  to  combine  these  simple  elements  with  great  effect. 

547.  Ideal  compositions  may  be  both  grand  and  poetical.     In 
this  style  the  artist  has  the  greatest  scope  and  freedom. 

548.  The  ornamental  style  allows  multiplied  objects ;  a  minute 
detail ;  a  great  variety  and  contrast  both  in  form  and  color. 

549.  The  rural  style  admits  of  great  variety  of  situation, 
sometimes  embracing  a  whole  valley,  in  which  the  shepherd 
appears  with  his  flock ;  or  only  a  simple  cottage  by  the  willow- 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  PICTUKES.  173 

covered  stream,  with  a  ragged  plank  thrown  across  for  a  foot- 
bridge.    This  style  is  universally  pleasing. 

550.  Every  style,  from  the  grand  to  the  familiar,  must  be 
more  or  less  picturesque.     In  some  pictures  this  is  the  most 
prominent  characteristic.     In  others,  a  more  subordinate  fea- 
ture.    In  landscape,  the  picturesque  is  a  combination  of  those 
regular  beauties  upon  which  the  eye  lingers  without  weariness ; 
clumps  of  trees,  bits  of  projecting  rocks,  the  bald  and  rugged 
root  of  age,  so  in  keeping  with  the  decayed  branches  and  spare 
foliage  above,  vines  trailing  in  wild  luxuriance,  and  gracefully 
waving  to  the  sporting  breeze,  uneven  ground,  varied  by  the 
rippling  stream,  or  the  quiet  pool,  adding  still  another  charm, 
by  repeating  the  scene  in  soft  reflection  on  its  calm  unruffled 
surface.     From  the  intricacy,  variety,  and  irregularity  of  such 
a  combination,  deep  shades  are  formed,  with  brilliant  effects  of 
light,  and  an  infinite  number  of  tints  and  hues,  that  furnish  a 
beautiful  and  inexhaustible  variety  of  models  to  the  landscape 
painter ;  and  of  which  the  true  lover  of  art  fails  not  to  avail 
himself. 

551.  Beyond  this,  the  picturesque  admits  of  all  that  is  irregu- 
lar, broken,  or  time-worn.     In  his  selection  from  so  vast  a  field, 
the  artist  must  be  decided  by  the  character  of  his  subject.     Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  introduce  too  many  of  these  beauties  in 
one   picture, — for  the  abundant  luxuriance   of  nature   would 
destroy  the  simplicity  which  is  essential  to  beauty  in  works  of 
art.     The  charms  of  art  are  limited  to  the  medium  of  sight. 
In  the  enjoyment  of  nature  many  senses  are  gratified,  and  if 
the  eye  becomes  weary  of  beauty  too  long  enjoyed,  relief  may 
be  obtained  by  change  of  position,  when  new  and  beautiful 
combinations  are  formed,  and  varied  effects  produced,  leading 
us  on  with  ever-renewed  pleasure  that  beguiles  all  weariness, 
and  to  which  the  most  indifferent  are  not  insensible,  though  un- 
able to  define  the  reason  of  their  unsated  enjoyment. 

552.  Artificial  beauty  furnishes  change,  but  not  the  extensive 
variety  found  in  nature.     Variety  is  one  of  the  most  essential 
beauties  of  composition.     Its  true  end  is,  to  give  relief  to  the 

7 


174  STUDY  OF  ART. 

eye,  an  effect  that  may  be  entirely  destroyed  by  carrying  variety 
to  excess.  Then  the  eye  is  perplexed,  and  the  effect  is  more 
displeasing  than  that  produced  by  sameness,  or  a  variety  of 
objects.  Full  and  unbroken  foliage  does  not  afford  the  variety 
necessary  to  picturesque  effect. 

553.  These  various  styles  require  different  treatment.  The 
grand  for  instance,  requires  a  bold,  free,  and  forcible  manner. 
The  rural,  something  more  quiet  and  simple.  With  a  right 
conception  of  his  subject,  there  naturally  comes  a  right  expres- 
sion. An  original  writer  has  his  own  natural  style ;  so  an 
original  painter,  unconscious  of  the  materials  used,  after  having 
set  his  palette,  obeys  the  impulse  of  his  mind,  regardless  of  the 
mechanism  of  art.  His  mind  and  hand  then  work  in  unison, 
and  the  expression  given  in  the  manner  cannot  fail  to  be  in 
harmony  with  the  subject  treated. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

OF    PORTRAIT    PAINTING. 

554.  FUSELI  says :  Resemblance,  character,  costume,  are  tne 
three  requisites  of  portrait  painting;  that  resemblance  distin- 
guishes, character  classifies,  and  costume  assigns  place  and  time 

to  an  individual. 

555.  Portrait  painting  has  three  principal  elements, — iden- 
tity, attitude,  and  color.     The  air  and  identity  by  which  a  por- 
trait is  recognized,  depend  not  so  much  upon  a  correct  copy  of 
the  features,  as  upon  the  general  expression  of  character.     In 
a  mechanical  copy,  there  is  a  cold  unmeaning  look  which  few 
are  willing  to  own,  and  with  which  none  but  the  most  ignorant 
are  pleased. 

556.  It  has  been  a  question,  whether  fidelity  requires  that 
the  prevailing  fashion  of  the  day  (of  which  time  never  fails  to 
make  a  caricature,)  should  be  preserved.     The  general  inability 
of  portrait  painters  to  substitute  any  other,  seems  however,  to 
give  the  question  a  practical  decision. 

557.  The  attitude  should  be  in  keeping  with  the  expression, 
and  suited  to  the  age  and  sex.     The  old  should  appear  grave 
and  dignified — the  young,  bright  and  joyous.     Motion  is  suita- 
ble to  the  young,  but  repose  is  applicable  to  all  ages,  and  the 
most  universally  pleasing  in  a  picture. 

558.  The  colors  in  portrait  painting  are  seldom  well  chosen. 
Harmony,  on  which  the  whole  beauty  depends,  requires  that 
the  complexion  of  the  sitter  should  decide  the  tone  of  color. 
The  tone  of  the  brunette  is  entirely  different  from  the  blonde, 
and  requires  a  different  combination  of  hues. 


176  STUDY  OF  ART. 

559.  It  is  said,  that  all  good  historical  painters  excel  in  por- 
traiture ;  but  that  portrait  painters  have  rarely  attempted  his- 
tory with  success.  Raphael,  the  greatest  ideal  painter,  was  also 
considered  the  greatest  portrait  painter.  His  eye  for  the  beauti- 
ful and  graceful,  the  commanding  and  majestic,  which  guided 
him  in  producing  those  pictures  that  command  the  admiration 
of  the  world,  no  doubt  led  him  to  idealize  the  representation  of 
individual  characters.  This  gave  him  superiority  as  a  portrait 
painter.  (§  293,  §  294.) 

560.  If  by  his  limited  knowledge  and  practice,  an  artist  is 
confined  to  a  model,  the  figure  represented  will  be  more  or  less 
individual,  and  of  course  perishable.  For  history  proves,  that 
in  works  of  art,  ideal  beauty  is  more  pleasing,  and  will  outlast 
the  representation  of  individual  beauty.  With  one  fixed  atti- 
tude and  expression,  something  seems  wanting  that  we  look  for 
in  vain.  "We  tire  of  the  unchanging  form,  and  unbroken  silence 
of  what  we  feel  to  be  an  individual  presence.  Such  portraits 
are  pleasing  from  association,  which  alone  determines  their 
value.  With  ideal  representations  we  do  not  associate  the 
attachments  and  forms  of  social  life,  and  in  contemplating  them, 
the  attention  is  beguiled  of  all  weariness  by  the  scope  given  to 
the  imagination. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

LANDSCAPE. 

561.  LANDSCAPE  has  its  elements  of  composition.     First — 
drawing,  then  light  and  shade,  aerial   perspective,  or  degrada- 
tion, harmony  and  expression.     The  objects  introduced  compre- 
hend an  extensive  variety,  grounds,  plants,  trees,  rocks,  fields, 
water,  figures,  and  animals ;  also,  artificial  objects,  buildings, 
bridges,  etc. 

562.  The  drawing  of  a  landscape  is  governed  by  rules  only 
so  far  as  the  laws  of  perspective  are  a  guide.     The  taste  of  the 
artist  must  direct  in  the  choice  and  disposition  of  the  objects, 
which  should  be  duly  arranged  according  to  the  foreground, 
middle-distance  and  distance.     Great  care  is  necessary  to  pre- 
serve the  gradation  in  the  distances,  both  in  regard  to  the  size 
and  color.     All  objects  that  are  on  the  same  plane  should  be 
equally  distinct  in  form  and  forcible  in  color. 

563.  The  fore-ground  should  receive  the  first  attention,  be- 
cause it  regulates  the  gradation  of  the  whole  scene  represented. 
If  shrubs,  bushes  and  trees  are  introduced,  they  must  be  repre- 
sented with  regard  to  the  general  truth  of  form,  foliage  and 
colors.     But  if  this  care  is  carried  to  a  strictly  botanical  repre- 
sentation, the  effect  will  be  stiff  and  formal.     The  character  of 
the  tree  may  be  perfectly  preserved  by  attention  to  the  general 
form  and  the  setting  of  the  branches.     In  nature,  we  can  dis- 
tinguish an  oak  from  a  walnut  till  their  forms  are  lost  in  the 
distance.     And  he  must  be  an  indifferent  artist  who  cannot 
preserve  the  same  effect  on  his  canvas  without  minute  detail, 
which  is  incompatible  with  a  light  and  pleasing  effect.     The 
setting  of  the  branches,  if  done  according  to  nature,  is  quite 

8* 


178  STUDY  OF  ART. 

sufficient  to  mark  the  character  of  every  tree  introduced  in  a 
picture. 

564.  Some  modern  landscape  painters  omit  the  fore-ground. 
The  picture  then  looks  like  the  distance  and  middle-distance  of 
some  divided  landscape.     In  doing  this,  the  artist  foregoes  a 
great  advantage.     For  it  is  on  the  fore-ground,  more  than  upon 
any  other  part,  that  he  must  depend  for  giving  a  pleasing  effect. 
The  eye  must  have  distance;  but  is  not  satisfied  with  that 
alone,  however  charming  it  may  be.     Distance  admits  of  no- 
thing striking  in  effect,  except  in  contrast  with  the  fore-ground, 
upon  which  its  regulation  depends.     The  most  beautiful  fore- 
ground will  not  bear  walling  in.     The  eye  is  never  satisfied 
with  a  view  in  nature  that  has  a  limited  boundary.     We  all 
desire  to  see  beyond — still  farther  and  farther  into  the  fields  of 
space.     No  person  when  climbing  a  height  is  satisfied  with  the 
view  obtained  half-way  up  the  summit.     He  ascends  till  he 
reaches   the  highest  point.     And  the  landscape  painter  must 
have  due  regard  to  this  feeling,  which  is  common  to  all  man- 
kind.    Neither  must  he  forget,  that  the  distance  is  rendered 
still  more  attractive  to  the  spectator  when  conducted  towards  it 
by  an  agreeable  pathway. 

565.  In  the  middle  distance,  objects  should  be  still  less  defined  in 
form  and  hue  than  in  the  fore-ground,  and  so  on  from  point  to  point, 
till  outline  and  color  are  gradually  lost  in  the  extreme  distance. 
The  best  general  rule  in  regard  to  the  delineation  of  objects  is,  to 
represent  them  just  as  they  appear  to  the  eye  at  the  first  glance, 
before  examining  the  details  that  constitute  the  whole.     The 
indistinctness  of  the  extreme  distance  is  somewhat  compensated 
by  the  greater  number  and  variety  of  the  objects  it  admits.     In 
the  fore-ground  there  can   be  comparatively  few   introduced; 
because  of  the  greater  space  occupied  by  each  one  from  its 
proximity  to  the  point  of  view. 

566.  In  some  pictures  we  see  -trees  with  the  foliage  repre- 
sented as  solid  and  impenetrable.     "  Nature  never  closes  her 
sheltering  branches  to  the  nestling  bird  and  should  not  be  so 
represented."     There  is  nothing  pleasing  to  the  eye  in   this 


LANDSCAPE.  179 

regularity  of  surface.  On  the  contrary,  a  tree  or  clump  of 
trees  of  thin  foliage,  admits  of  different  degrees  of  light,  shade, 
and  color,  and  even  glimpses  of  sky  beyond ;  by  all  of  which 
a  pleasing  variety  is  obtained.  Not  that  one  kind  of  tree  is 
suitable  to  all  subjects,  or  should  be  introduced  in  every  land- 
scape. A  more  uniform  and  leafy  surface  may  do  for  the 
grand  style,  or  the  poetic ;  not  for  the  picturesque.  But,  what- 
ever the  variety  introduced,  whether  in  form  or  color,  buildings 
or  figures,  all  must  be  harmonized.  A  scene  may  be  beautifully 
picturesque,  where  the  sheep  are  scattered  over  the  fields  or 
adjacent  hills ;  but  if  a  fine  dressed  lady  is  introduced  with  her 
crook  in  the  character  of  a  shepherdess,  the  figure  is  like  a  spot 
on  the  canvas,  because  it  harmonizes  with  nothing  else  in  the 
scene.  Neither  will  a  well-groomed  horse,  or  a  sleek  gray- 
hound  be  in  keeping  with  the  farm-yard. 

567.  We  have  already  considered  the  laws  that  govern  light 
and  color.     With  regard  to  landscape,  the  most  simple  arrange- 
ment is,  to  have  some  object  receive  the  principal  light  that  is 
in  itself  of  a  light  color.     Stony  or  gravelly  earth ;  water,  or 
a  building,  and  this  local  color  should  regulate  the  tone  given 
to  all  the  other  lights.   This  object  should  be  in  the  fore-ground, 
because  that  part  of  the  picture,  being  nearest  the  spectator,  the 
color  is  the  strongest,  becoming  less  and  less  decided  as  it  does 
in  proportion  to  its  distance  from  the  point  of  view.     Beyond 
the  fore-ground,  a  local  color  can  not  properly  give  tone  to  the 
picture.  The  strongest  shade  as  well  as  the  strongest  light  should 
be  in  the  fore-ground,  from  which  a  true  gradation  of  hues  and 
tints  will  create  space  to  any  extent. 

568.  The  color  should  be  in  harmony  with  the  scene  repre- 
sented.    Either  of  a  cool  tone,  of  a  deep  tone,  or  of  a  neutral 
tone ;  and  like  the  color  of  other  pictures  should  be  ideal  and 
for  the  same  reason,  viz :  that  the  apparent  truth  of  one  part 
of  the  composition  may  not  conflict  with  the  evident  falsity  of 
another. 

569.  In  the  lessons  upon  light  we  learned  that  objects  lose 
their  distinctness  in  proportion  as  they  recede  from  the  light 


180  STUDY   OF  ART. 

and  from  the  spectator.  In  an  extensive  view,  there  is  another 
cause  that  must  not  be  overlooked ;  and  that  is,  the  density  and 
color  of  the  medium  through  which  they  are  seen.  In  nature, 
this  medium  is  the  atmosphere  which  increases  in  density  in 
proportion  to  the  increase  of  distance.  Therefore  the  farther 
objects  are  removed  from  the  eye,  the  nearer  they  approach  to 
the  same  hue ;  because  they  assume,  as  it  were,  the  color  of  the 
medium  through  which  they  are  seen. 

570.  All  objects  situated  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  eye, 
and  that  are  seen  under  the  same  privation  of  light,  must  be 
equally  modified  in  color.     The  lights  and  shades  lose  their 
force  in  proportion  to  their  distance  from  the  point  of  view,  and 
the  density  of  the  medium  through  which  they  are  seen.    Hence 
we  learn,  that  in  landscape  painting,  privation  of  light,  the  dis- 
tance from  the  eye,  and  the  medium  through  which  objects  are 
seen,  regulates  the  gradation  of  color. 

571.  The  exhalations  that  cause  this  density  of  the  atmos- 
phere, are  in  greater  abundance  in  the  evening  than  in  the 
morning.     At  their  first  ascent  they  are  too  minute  to  cause 
reflection.     Therefore  they  do  not  destroy  the  transparency  of 
the  atmosphere.     But  when  by  uniting,  they  have  become  of 
such  magnitude  that  colors    may  be   reflected  by  some,  and 
transmitted  by  others,  clouds  are  formed,  varying  in  their  hues, 
according  to  the  various  magnitudes  of  the  globules  of  which 
they  are  composed.     The  principles  of  optics,  on  which  per- 
spective, both  aerial  and  linear  depend,  regulate  the  aspects  of 
nature  to  the  eye.     Therefore  in  design  and  composition,  they 
must  be  well  understood.     This  atmospheric  obscurity  can  only 
be  produced  by  distance.     If  indistinctness  is  required  to  give 
effect  to  those  parts  near  the  point  of  view,  it  must  be  produced 
by  shade. 

572.  The  sky,  so  important  a  feature  in  a  landscape,  is 
merely  the  ethereal  firmament  above  us.     Or,  rather,  the  air 
which  we  breathe.     We  call  the  sky  blue ;  but  the  painter  will 
find  that  he  cannot  produce  the  right  hue  without  the  combina- 
tion of  the  three  primary  colors,  red,  blue,  and  yellow.     Near 


LANDSCAPE.  181 

the  horizon,  the  color  of  the  sky  is  modified  by  the  accumula- 
tion of  vapors  from  the  earth.  A  small  amount  of  vapor  con- 
centrates but  little  color.  As  it  becomes  a  larger  mass,  clouds 
are  formed,  that  exhibit  the  same  tints  and  hues  as  other  dis- 
tant objects  in  the  view.  Clouds,  sometimes,  add  both  charac- 
ter and  beauty  to  a  landscape.  The  character  of  the  sky  is 
always  luminous,  and  the  only  object  that  rivals  it  in  brilliancy 
is  water,  in  which  the  clouds  are  sometimes  beautifully  re- 
flected. 

573.  The  sky  requires  careful  study  and  arrangement   to 
produce  the  right  effect.     The  lights  formed  by  the  clouds  must 
be  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  lose  their  force.     Small 
clouds  seldom  have  a  good  effect,  and  betray  a  feebleness  of 
manner  in  the  artist,  excepting  when  they  are  so  arranged  as  to 
form  a  single  object. 

574.  Clouds  give  expression  to  the  character  of  the  scene  re- 
presented;  for   instance,    as  they  gather  for  an  approaching 
storm,  or  break  away  to  make  an  opening  for  the  welcome  sun- 
beam, after  having  deluged  the  earth  with  water.     And  again, 
they  may  express  the  beautiful  repose  of  a  quiet  summer  after- 
noon. 

575.  Water  adds  a  beautiful  variety  to  a  lanscape,  and  is  one 
of  its  finest  features.     It  is  also  one  of  the  most  difficult  branches 
of  art,  and  is  seldom  made  to  exhibit  a  natural  appearance. 

576.  The  reflections  and  refractions  of  light  produced  by  the 
motions  of  water,  are  subject  to  certain  laws  of  optics,  a  know- 
ledge of  which  is  necessary  to  the  landscape  painter.     It  is 
owing  to  these  refractions  and  reflections  that  the  surface  of  the 
water  never  presents  the  true  images  of  objects,  except  when  it 
is  perfectly  still  and  unruffled.     Motion,  from  any  cause,  pro- 
duces a  continued  succession  of  small  waves  that  are  differently 
inclined  to  the  view  of  the  spectator.     Then  the  images  of  the 
objects  are  reflected  in  so  many  various  directions  as  to  appear 
broken  and  distorted,  both  in  shape  and  color. 

577.  One  of  the  most  simple  laws,  in  regard  to  reflection,  is, 
that  the  angle  of  reflection  is  always  equal  to  the  angle  of  in- 


182  STUDY  OF  ART. 

cidence.  Reflections  are  often  incorrectly  represented.  Their 
effect  depends  upon  the  height  of  the  horizon-line,  and  the  dis- 
tance of  the  water  from  the  point  of  view.  When  water  is 
broken  into  spray,  it  partakes  something  of  the  character  of 
clouds. 

578.  Water  is  seldom  well  represented,  and  seems  not  to 
have  received  due  attention  from  the  student  in  art.     The  cold, 
dead,  green  color  often  used  to  represent  water,  and  the  chalky 
white  spray,  are  a  libel  upon  that  great  colorist,  nature. 

579.  We  must  again  refer  to  the  laws  of  optics,  from  which 
we  learn  that  all  bodies  transmit  or  absorb  light.    A  small  body 
of  water  transmits  light ;  when  it  is  too  deep  to  transmit  light, 
it  absorbs  it.     It  follows,  that  in  absorbing  light,  it  absorbs  the 
colors  of  which  light  is  composed.     The  color  of  water,  then,  or 
rather  its  depth  of  color,  is  owing  to  the  amount  accumulated  in 
one  body.    The  water,  as  it  falls  over  the  horse-shoe  at  Niagara, 
is  of  the  most  brilliant  emerald  green,  and  an  entirely  different 
hue  from  the  water  of  the  river.     The  immense  body  of  water 
accumulated  in  the  channel  below,  admits  of  no  transparency. 
Hence  it   is  of  a  dull  green  color — or  rather  of  a  blackish 
green — so  dense,  that  the  body  of  water  appears  almost  solid. 
As  it  flows  towards  the  lake,  and  the  stream  widens,  and  the 
water  becomes  less  in  depth,  the  green  is  of  a   lighter  hue. 
Approaching  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  water  again  changes  its 
green  to  an  indigo  tint.     Water,  like  clouds,  takes  its  tone  of 
color  from  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere.     If  it  is  cold,  the 
blue  will  predominate.     If  it  is  warm,  red  will  be  the  prevail- 
ing hue. 

580.  The  old  landscape  painters  always  introduced  figures 
that  would  add  interest  to  a  landscape;  and  when  they  felt 
incompetent  to  painting  them  well,  employed  others  to  do  it 
for  them.     The  figures  should  be  in  harmony  with  the  charac- 
ter of  the  scene,  both  in  form  and  dress.     If  properly  arranged, 
they  carry  the  eye  over  the  whole  picture,  and,  more  than  any 
other  object,  attract  attention  and  give  interest  to  the  distance. 

581.  Fuselisays,  "selection  is  the  invention  of  the  landscape 


LANDSCAPE.  183 

painter."  A  pleasing  picture  can  seldom  be  produced  by  the 
transcript  of  any  particular  spot.  Some  accessories  are  always 
required  to  give  the  right  effect.  The  artist  must  select  parts 
that  are  harmonious,  and  in  their  combination  be  guided  by  his 
own  taste.  It  is  the  only  way  of  obtaining  the  variety  and 
arrangement  required  for  picturesque  effect.  The  most  import- 
ant point  is,  to  preserve  the  general  characteristics  of  the  cli- 
mate and  country  represented. 

582.  Landscape   has   its   expression.     For   instance,   rocks 
express  solitude.     The  falling  tree  that  excites  terror  in  some 
person  below,  expresses  danger.     And  nothing  is  more  expres- 
sive of  repose  than  a  still,  quiet  scene,  in  the  cool  tone  of  twi- 
light.    As  we  contemplate  it,  the  repose  in  the  picture  insensi- 
bly steals   over  us,  till  we  can  almost  fancy  that,  with  the 
lengthened  shadows,  we  feel  the  coolness  of  the  evening  dews. 

583.  October  is  called  the  painter's  month,  because  at  that 
season  the  colors  are  deeper,  richer,  and  more  variegated,  than 
at  any  other.    The  rays  of  the  sun  then  fall  in  a  manner  to  give 
depth  of  shade.     An  effect  that  is  lost  in  the  spring,  from  the 
immaturity  of  the  foliage.     In  autumn,  the  vapor  in  the  atmos- 
phere gives  beauty  and  softness  to  the  coloring ;  an  effect  which 
the  painter  imitates  with  advantage. 

584.  The  landscape  painter  will  choose  the  subject  that  best 
accords  with  his  own  feelings ;  the  scene  that  affords  him  the 
most  pleasure.     On  this  depends  the  spirit  of  his  performance. 
Few  excel  in  more  than  one  style. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

ANCIENT    PICTORIAL    ARTS. 

585.  THE  earliest  form  of  the  art  of  painting  was  what  the 
Italians  call  al  fresco.     The  word  signifies  fresh ;  and  fresco 
painting  implies  that  the  colors  were  laid  on  while  the  plaster 
which  receives  them  is  fresh  and  still  wet.     These  colors  are 
absorbed  by  the  plaster,  and,  as  it  dries,  become  incorporated 
with  it.    Of  all  the  methods  of  painting,  fresco  is  the  most  dura- 
ble, the  most  ancient,  the  most  expeditiously  performed,  requires 
the  greatest  skill  in  execution,  and  is  the  most  suitable  style  for 
the  embellishment  of  public  buildings. 

586.  Of  the  antiquity  of  fresco  painting  there  can  be  little 
doubt.     The  Egyptians  practiced  it  from  an  unknown  period, 
as  the  paintings  in  their  tombs  abundantly  prove.     It  is  also 
found  on  the  walls  of  their  temples,  on  which  the  colors  are 
preserved   as    clear  and  bright  as  if  they  had   been   freshly 
painted.     The  Greeks  borrowed  the  art  from  the  Egyptians, 
and  the  paintings  of  Polygnotus,  at  Delphi,  described  by  Pau- 
sanias,  are  supposed  to  have  been  done  in  fresco.     The  art 
seems  to  have  been  transmitted  from  generation  to  generation, 
and  never  entirely  lost.     During  the  middle  ages  it  was  practi- 
ced with  less  skill,  and  was  imperfectly  understood  in  the  time 
of  Raffaelle  and  Michael  Angelo. 

587.  In  the  modern  practice  of  the  art,  the  necessary  prepa- 
rations are,  the  sketch,  the  colors,  which  are  mineral  and  pre- 
pared only  with  water,  and  the  plaster  which  is  to  receive 
them.     The  painter's  mind  must  be  full  of  his  subject,  and 
everything  pre-determined,  as  this  manner  of  working  admits  of 
no  alteration  or  correction.    He  must  have  a  rapid  and  decisive 


ANCIENT  PICTORIAL  ARTS.  185 

execution,  and  be  well  acquainted  with  his  colors,  as  they  dry 
lighter  than  when  first  laid  on.  Everything  being  in  readiness, 
the  plasterer  renders  the  wall  to  such  a  surface  as  the  artist 
requires,  who  pricks  his  outline  through  the  sketch  upon  the 
plaster,  and  then  draws  the  outline  with  a  style  or  steel  point, 
to  prevent  the  colors  running  beyond  it.  The  colors  are  then 
applied  in  a  broad  and  bold  manner.  The  frescoes  of  Raffaelle 
are  said  to  be  more  boldly  drawn  and  more  vigorously  executed 
than  his  easel  pictures.  It  is  not  certainly  known  that  Michael 
Angelo  ever  painted  in  oil,  and  the  frescoes  of  Annibal  Caracci 
are  considered  his  finest  works. 

588.  It  has  been  remarked,  that  the  ancient  fresco  paintings 
were  more  durable,  and  the  modern  the  more  beautiful,  excel- 
ling the  ancient  in  design  and  gradation  of  color.    It  is  possible 
that  the  ancient  method  of  working  did  not  admit  of  any  varia- 
tion or  gradation  of  tint. 

589.  Distemper  is  a  kind  of  painting  with  opaque  colors, 
ground  and  diluted  with  water  and  gluten,  used  as  decorative 
and  scene  painting.     When  applied  to  paper  or  paste-board,  it 
is  called  body-color  painting.     Distemper  painting  is  executed 
on  plaster,  wood,  canvas,  parchment,  or  paper,  and  is  considered 
by  some  as  the  most  ancient  mode  practiced.     Many  statues, 
discovered  in  the  ancient  Egyptian  temples  and  tombs,  and 
many  ancient  bassi-relievi  in  Italy,  are  painted  in  this  manner. 
If  kept  from  the  damp,  and  external  air,  they  will  endure  for  a 
great   length   of  time.     The  colors  are  brilliant  and   do   not 
change,  and  their  effect  much  increased  by  a  bright  light.    They 
are  therefore  best  for  theatres,  and  apartments  that  are  used  by 
artificial  light.    Distemper  differs  from  fresco  in  being  executed 
on  a  dry  ground.     Fresco  painting  is  invariably  performed  on 
wet  plaster,  by  which  it  is  absorbed. 

590.  Mosaic,  in  its  widest  sense,  comprises  any  work  which 
produces  a  design  or  painting  on  a  surface,  by  joining  together 
distinct  bodies  ;  and  comprises,  first,  floors  formed  of  pieces  of 


186  STUDY  OF  ART. 

stone  of  different  colors,  geometrically  cut,  and  cemented 
together.  Second,  windows  composed  of  glass  panes  of  differ- 
ent colors,  which  appears  to  have  been  known  at  least  to  later 
antiquity.  Third,  floors  inlaid  with  small  cubes  of  stone,  form- 
ing a  colored  design,  such  as  were  usual  in  antiquity,  not 
merely  in  rooms  but  also  in  courts  and  terraces,  instead  of 
pavement. 

591.  The  finer  mosaic,  imitating  pictures,  is  executed  with 
small  pieces  of  glass,  pebbles,  enamel,  etc.,  fixed  upon  any  given 
surface  by  means  of  mastic.     Mosaic  works  are  also  executed 
with  precious  stones,  cut  into  very  thin  leaves,  and  fixed  on  a 
stone  ground.     This  branch  of  art  was  much  practiced  by  the 
ancients,  but  their  method  of  working  is  not  known.     The  pre- 
sent method  is  to  cut  in  a  stone  plate  a  space  suited  to  the  size 
of  the  subject.     This  space  is  then  covered  with  thick  mastic, 
on  which  are  laid,  according  to  the  design,  the  various  sub- 
stances used.     In  the  course  of  time  the  mosaic  acquires  the 
consistency  of  stone,  and  is  susceptible  of  a  polish  like  crystal. 
But  the  brilliancy  thus  acquired  is  injurious  to  the  effect  of  the 
design,  which   is  not  so  clearly  perceived  through   it.     The 
mosaics  applied  to  cupolas  and  ceilings  are  generally  less  elabo- 
rately polished,  as  the  distance  from  which  they  are  viewed, 
prevents  the  spectator  from  detecting  any  irregularities  of  sur- 
face,  or   the   interstices    between   the   pieces   of    which    the 
work  is  composed.     This  roughness  is  also  essential  to  a  right 
effect  when  placed  at  a  distance  from  the  spectator.     If  soft- 
ened by  art  and  distance  both,  the  work  would  lose  all  force 
and  spirit. 

592.  The  origin  of  mosaic  work  must  apparently  be  traced 
to  the  East,  where  their  rich  carpets  were  imitated  in  stone. 
It  is  probable  that  the  art  was  known  to  the  Phoenicians,  but 
its  perfection  is  attributed  to  the  Greeks.     Toward  the  end  of 
the  Republic,  it  passed  with  other  arts  from  Greece  into  Rome, 
when  the  Italian  conquerors  carried  from  that  country  into  their 
own,  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  mosaic. 

593.  Scylla  was  the  first  Roman  who  caused  a  piece  of  mosaic 


ANCIENT   PICTORIAL   ARTS.  187 

work  to  be  executed.  It  still  exists,  or  at  least  a  large  portion 
of  it  in  the  temple  of  Fortune,  at  Praeneste,  now  Palestrina. 
At  first  they  ornamented  in  this  manner  the  pavements  of  build- 
ings only.  It  was  afterwards  extended  to  the  walls  and  arched 
ceilings.  The  discovery  of  colored  glass,  by  the  variety  of 
shades  it  afforded,  greatly  promoted  the  art. 

594.  "The  age  of  Pope  Leo  the  Great,  (A.D.  440  to  462), 
is  distinguished  by  an  imposing  work,  the  conception  of  which 
is  attributable  probably  to  the  Pope  himself,  and  which  became 
a  favorite  example  for  subsequent  times — we  mean  the  mosaics 
on  the  arch  of  triumph  in  St.  Paolo  Fuori  le  Mura,  in  Rome, 
which  partially  survived  the  unfortunate  fire  in  1823,  and  are 
now  in  progress  of  repair.  Within  a  cruciform  nimbus  fifteen 
feet  in  diameter,  and  surrounded  with  rays,  shines  forth  in  the 
centre  the  colossal  figure  of  the  Savior — the  right  hand  raised 
in  benediction,  the  left  holding  the  sceptre ;  a  delicately  folded 
mantle  of  thin  material  covers  the  shoulders ;  the  form  is  stern, 
but  grand  in  conception ;  the  eye-brows  in  finely  arched  half- 
circles  above  the  widely  opened  eyes;  the  nose  in  a  straight 
Grecian  line ;  the  mouth,  which  is  left  clear  of  all  beard, 
clothed  with  an  expression  of  mild  serenity,  and  hair  and  beard 
divided  in  the  centre.  Above,  in  the  clouds,  on  a  smaller  scale, 
are  seen  the  four  winged  animals  bearing  the  books  of  the 
gospels ;  lower  down  two  angels  (perhaps  one  of  the  earliest 
specimens  of  angel  representation),  are  lowering  their  wands 
before  the  Redeemer,  on  each  side  of  whom  the  four-and-twenty 
elders  are  humbly  casting  their  crowns — those  on  the  right, 
bare-headed,  the  others  covered ;  the  one  signifying  the  pro- 
phets of  the  Old  Testament,  who  only  saw  the  truth  through 
a  veil ;  the  other,  the  apostles  of  the  New  Testament,  who 
beheld  it  face  to  face.  Finally,  below  these,  where  only  a 
narrow  space  remains  next  the  arch,  appear  on  the  left,  St. 
Paul  with  the  sword,  and  on  the  right,  St.  Peter  with  the  keys ; 
both  in  the  style  of  the  divided  hair,  somewhat  approaching  the 
type  of  Christ ;  both  in  active  gesture  as  if  engaged  in  the  pro- 
clamation of  the  Gospel." 

5* 


188  STUDY  OF  ART. 

595.  "The  principal   mosaics  of  the  sixth  century  are,  in 
point  of  conception,  scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  the  fifth,  and 
in  splendor  of  material  by  no  means  so.     The  finest  mosaics 
of  ancient  Rome  belonging  to  this  period,  (A.  D.  526  and  530), 
are  those  of  S.  S.  Cosmo  and  Damiano.     Above  the  arch  of 
the  tolerably  spacious  apsis,  appear,  on  each  side  of  the  Lamb, 
four  angels  of  excellent  but  somewhat  severe  style  ;  then  follow 
various  apocalyptic  emblems ;  a  modern  walling  up  having  left 
but  few  traces  of  the  figures  of  the  four-and-twenty  elders.     A 
gold  surface  dimmed  by  age  with  little  purple  clouds  forms  the 
back-ground;  though  in  Rome  at  both  an  earlier  and  later 
date  a  blue  ground  prevailed.     In  the  apsis  itself,  upon  a  dark- 
blue  ground,  with   golden-edged  clouds,  is   seen  the  colossal 
figure  of  Christ ;  the  right  hand  raised  either  in  benediction  or 
teaching  ;  the  left  holding  a  written  scroll ;  above  is  the  hand 
that  is  the  emblem  of  the  first  person  of  the  trinity,  (o)    Below, 
on  each  side,  the  apostles  Peter  and   Paul  are  leading  S.  S. 
Cosmo  and  Damiano,  each  with  crowns  in  their  hands,  towards 
the  Savior,  followed  by  St.  Theodore  on  the  right  and  Pope 
Felix  IV.,  the  founder  of  the  church,  on  the  left.     This  latter, 
unfortunately,  is  an  entirely  restored  figure.     Two  palm  trees 
sparkling  with  gold,  above  one  of  which  appears  the  emblem 
of  eternity — the  Phoenix,  with  a  star-shaped  nimbus,  close  the 
composition  on  each  side.     Further  below,  indicated  by  water- 
plants,  sparkling  also  with  gold,  is   the   river  Jordan.     The 
figure  of  Christ  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  marvellous 
specimens  of  the  art  of  the  middle  ages."* 

596.  Encaustic  painting  was  a  very  extensive  branch  of 
ancient  art,  and  was  employed  especially  in  animal  and  flower- 
pieces.     There  were  three  kinds  :  first,  the  mere  burning  in  of 
the  outlines  on  ivory  with  the  style ;  second,  applying  colored 
wax,  commonly  on  wooden  tablets  (but  also  in  burnt  clay),  with 
the  aid  of  hot  pencils,  which  were  followed  by  a  complete  blend- 
ing and  softening  down  ;  third,  the  painting  of  ships  with  brushes 

*  Kugler's  Hand  Book  of  Painting. 


ANCIENT  PICTORIAL  ARTS.  189 

dipped  in  a  kind  of  fluid,  formed  of  wax,  mixed  with  pitch, 
which  was  not  only  ornamental,  but  also  served  as  a  protection 
against  the  action  of  the  sea-water. 

597.  Muller  remarks,  that  we  must  rest  satisfied  with  these 
slender  data,  gathered  from  passages  in  the  ancient  writers,  as 
the  attempts  to  revive  this  lost  art  of  painting  have  not  hitherto 
yielded  any  satisfactory  result. 

598.  Enamel  is  the  art  of  variegating  colors,  laid  upon  or  into 
another  body.    It  is  also  a  mode  of  painting  with  vitrified  colors, 
on  gold,  silver,  copper,  etc.,  and  of  melting  it  by  heat. 

599.  The  art  of  enameling  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  its  origin 
unknown.     From  the  remains  found  on  the  ornamental  enve- 
lopes of  mummies,  it  was  evidently  practiced  by  the  Egyptians. 
From  Egypt  it  passed  into  Greece,  and  afterwards  into  Rome. 

600.  The  basis  of  all  kinds  of  enamel  is  a  perfectly  trans- 
parent and  fusible  glass,  which  is  rendered  either  transparent 
or  opaque  by  the  addition  of  the  metallic  oxydes.     The  art  of 
coloring  glass  seems  to  be  nearly  of  the  same  antiquity  as  the 
art  of  making  it,  which  is  proved  by  the  variously  colored  glass 
corals,  with   which   several   of  the   Egyptian   mummies   are 
decorated. 

601.  "  Gorgeous  specimens  of  enamel   upon   gold   were  a 
special  department  of  Byzantine  workmanship.     The  republic 
of  Venice  ordered  for  St.  Marks'  the  most  costly  piece  that 
Constantinople  could  furnish,  and  which  is  still  preserved  in 
that  church.     It  consists  of  a  number  of  delicate  gold  plates, 
upon  which  Christ  and  the  saints,  with  biblical  scenes,  and  the 
life  of  St.  Mark,  are  represented  in  an  enamel  of  the  deepest 
colors.     The  enamels  of  the  Mediaeval  times  present  no  grada- 
tions of  tints,  and  the  lights  and  shades  are  expressed  by  gold 
hatchings  (whether  scratched  out,  or  laid  on,  we  know  not), 
which  only  a  microscopic  eye  can  trace.     In  the  treasury  of  St. 
Marks  there  are  golden  reliquaries  of  a  similar  workmanship, 
some  of  them,  perhaps,  the  fruits  of  the  pillage  of  Constanti- 
nople (A.  D.  1204),  of  which  scarcely  anything  else  is  extant. 


190  STUDY  OF  ART. 

When  Art  is  identified  with  materials  so  tempting  to  the  spoiler, 
she  must  renounce  all  hope  of  descending  to  posterity."* 

602.  The  ancients  knew  nothing  of  oil-painting.  The  art  is 
said  to  have  been  discovered  by  John  Van  Eyck,  or  John  of 
Bruges,  about  the  year  1410.  This,  however,  is  a  matter  of 
question,  and  much  has  been  written  on  both  sides.  From  the 
various  statements  made  on  the  subject,  it  seems  probable  that 
an  imperfect  practice  of  painting  in  oil  existed  before  the  time 
of  Van  Eyck.  It  was  practiced  beyond  the  Alps,  but  is  not 
known  to  have  been  in  use  at  that  time  in  Italy.  Giovani  im- 
proved upon  the  discovery  till  he  perfected  the  art,  which  was 
afterwards  diffused  over  Europe,  and  introduced  into  Italy  by 
Antonio, -or  Antonello  da  Messnia.  An  analysis  of  several 
Tuscan  paintings  was  made  at  Pisa  by  an  able  chemist,  that 
were  apparently  colored  in  oil.  The  most  lucid  parts  were 
found  to  contain  particles  of  wax,  a  material  employed  in  the 
encaustij  and  not  forgotten  by  the  Greeks,  who  instructed 
Giunta  and  his  contemporaries.  It  would  appear  that  they 
applied  it  as  a  varnish,  to  act  as  a  covering  and  protection 
against  humidity,  as  well  as  to  give  a  polish.  It  has  been 
observed,  that  the  proportion  of  wax  used  decreased  during  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  after  the  year  1360,  was  succeeded  by 
a  vehicle  that  carries  no  gloss.  In  these  chemical  experiments, 
oil  was  never  elicited,  if  we  except  a  few  drops  of  essential  oil, 
which  the  learned  professor  conjectures  was  employed  at  that 
early  period,  to  dissolve  the  wax  that  was  combined  with  the 
colors.  Besides  this  material,  certain  gums  and  yolks  of  eggs 
were  used,  which  easily  deceive  the  eye  of  the  less  skillful,  as 
they  resemble  those  pictures  that  exhibit  a  scanty  portion  of 
oil.  Many  pictures  were  analyzed,  and  no  traces  of  oil  found. 
The  colors  consisted  of  the  finest  gums,  mixed  with  the  yolk 
and  white  of  eggs,  a  fact  that  afforded  just  grounds  for  a  like 
conclusion  in  regard  to  similar  works  by  the  ancients. 

*  Rugler's  Hand-Book  of  Painting,  p.  80. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

SYMBOLIC    COLORS.* 

603.  THE  history  of  symbolic  colors,  as  yet  but  little  known, 
and  of  which  I  present  only  fragments,  will,  perhaps,  tend  to 
decipher  some  of  the  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt,  and  to  unveil 
some  of  the  mysteries  of  antiquity.     I  do  not  flatter  myself  that 
I  have  accomplished  the  object  of  my  investigations.     My  sole 
ambition  is  to  excite  the  attention  of  the  learned  on  one  of  the 
most  curious  and  neglected  points  of  archaeology. 

604.  Colors  had  the  same  signification  amongst  all  nations  of 
remotest  antiquity.    This  conformity  indicates  a  common  origin, 
which  extends  to  the  earliest  state  of  humanity,  and  develops  its 
highest  energies  in  the  religion  of  Persia.    The  dualism  of  light 
and  darkness  presents,  in  effect,  the  two  types  of  colors,  which 
become  the  symbols  of  two  principles,  benevolence  and  malevo- 
lence.    The  ancients  admitted  but  two  primitive  colors :  white 
and  black,  whence  all  others  were  derived.     The  divinities  of 
Paganism  were  likewise  emanations  of  the  good  and  evil  prin- 
ciples. 

605.  The  language  of  colors,  intimately  connected  with  re- 
ligion, passed  into  India,  China,  Egypt,  Greece,  Rome,  reap- 
peared in  the  middle  ages,  and  the  large  windows  of  Gothic 
cathedrals  found  their  explanation  in  the  books  of  the  Zends, 
the  Vedas,  and  the  paintings  of  the  Egyptian  temples. 

606.  The  identity  of  symbols  implies  the  identity  of  primi- 
tive creeds ;   but,  in  proportion  as  religion  departs  from  its 
principle,  degrades   and   materializes   itself,   she   forsakes  the 

*  Abridged  from  the  French  of  Le  Baron  Frederic  de  Porta.. 


192  STUDY  OF  ART. 

signification  of  colors,  and  this  mysterious  language  revives 
with  religious  truth.  The  nearer  the  origin  of  religions  is 
approximated,  the  more  truth  appears  despoiled  of  the  impure 
alloy  of  human  superstitions.  She  shines  with  the  most  vivid 
light  in  Iran,  the  country  of  the  most  ancient  people.  The 
Iranians  firmly  believed  that  a  Supreme  God  created  the  world 
by  an  act  of  his  power,  and  that  his  Providence  governed  it 
continually.  They  profess  to  fear  him,  to  love  him,  and  piously 
adore  him,  and  to  honor  their  relations  and  aged  persons.  They 
had  a  paternal  affection  for  all  mankind,  and  even  a  tender 
compassion  for  animals. 

607.  Sabeism,  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  host,  obscured 
these  sublime  doctrines,  without  annihilating  them.     They  were 
preserved  in  the  Desatir  and  Zent-Avesta,  and,  if  the  truth 
were  hidden  from  the  profane,  it  was  yet  found  under  the  sym- 
bols of  these  sacred  books. 

608.  The  more  a  religion  advances  from  its  origin,  the  more 
it  becomes  materialized,  and,  proceeding  from  degradation  to 
degradation,  finally  arrives  at  Fetish. 

609.  The  adoration  of  the  negroes  is  the  last  expression  of 
the  dogmas  of  Ethiopia  and  Egypt.     Even  in  the  time  of  Moses, 
the  Egyptian  religion  evinced  the  elements  of  decrepitude  and 
dissolution.     The  symbol  had  become  the  god ;  truth,  forgotten 
by  the  people,  was  exiled  from  the  sanctuaries,  and  very  soon 
the  priests  themselves  began  to  lose  the  signification  of  their 
sacred  language.     These  observations  apply  equally  to  India 
and  its  corrupt  Brahmins ;  to  China  and  its  shameful  Bonzes ;  to 
those  Israelites  who  sacrificed  to  the  idols  of  foreigners,  and  to 
every  mode  of  worship. 

610.  This  custom,  fatal  to  humanity,  explains  the  necessity 
of  successive  revelations.     Judaism  and  Christianity  are  divine, 
by  the  isolated  fact  that  the  intervention  of  the  divinity  was  ne- 
cessary, indispensable.     How,  otherwise,  can  the  progress  of 
mankind,  in  spiritual  religion,  be  reconciled  with  the  tendency 
of  every  people  to  materialize  its  worship  ? 

611.  The  ancient  religion  of  Iran  is  forgotten,  and  its  sacred 


SYMBOLIC  COLORS.  193 

symbols  :  the  light,  the  sun,  the  planets,  are  deified.  It  is  at  the 
epoch  when  this  revolution  is  accomplished,  that  Abraham  goes 
out  of  Chaldca,  and  revivifies  the  truth,  about  to  be  annihilated. 
In  Egypt  and  India,  the  priesthood  still  preserved  the  deposito- 
ries of  sacred  knowledge,  while  the  people  were  immersed  in 
ignorance.  Polytheism  shrouded  the  world  with  its  funereal 
veil.  Then,  God  revealed  himself  in  the  call  of  the  Patriarch, 
and  from  one  family,  as  the  element  of  society,  religion  was  pro- 
pagated in  the  world. 

612.  This  prevailing  human  tendency  led  to  the  idolatry  of 
the  captive  Jews  in  Egypt.     Moses  appeared,  the  truth  was  de- 
monstrated, and  the  elect  people,  scarcely  snatched  from  vain 
superstitions,  relapsed  into  lethargy.     In  the  desert,  they  sa- 
crificed to  the  calf  Apis.     They  trampled  under  foot  the  holy 
law  in  the  land  of  Israel,  separated  themselves,  and  invoked  the 
bloody  gods  of  the  barbarians.     But  the  Eternal  will  not  aban- 
don the  work  of  regeneration.     The  prophet  nation  had  accom- 
plished its  mission,  and  the  Son  of  God,  the  Savior  of  the  world, 
appeared  in  his  humanity  to  call  all  nations  to  the  feast  of  life. 

613.  Thus,  the  fall  of  the  first  man  is  reflected  in  the  history 
of  every  people.     This  fatal  consequence  establishes  the  uni- 
versal doctrine  of  the  forfeiture  and  reinstatement  by  divine 
intervention. 

******* 

614.  The  symbols  of  the  divinity,  materialized  by  important 
nations,  were  the  origin  of  creeds  which  besotted  the  people  of 
antiquity,  and  arrested  the  march  of  human  intellect  for  four 
thousand  years. 

615.  St.  Clement  of  Alexandria  informs  us  that  the  Egyptians 
used  three  sorts  of  characters  for  writing.     Varro,  the  most 
learned  Roman,  establishes  the  existence  of  three  theologies ; 
and,  in  the  history  of  religions,  we  find  three  epochs,  marked 
by  three  distinct  languages. 

616.  The  Divine  Language,  at  first,  addresses  itself  to  all 
men,  and  reveals  to  them  the  existence  of  God.     Symbolism  is 
the  language  of  every  people,  as  religion  is  the  property  of  each 

9 


194  STUDY    OF  ART. 

family.     As  yet,  there  is  no  priest,  and  each  father  is  king  and 
pontiff. 

617.  The    Consecrated  Language   commenced  in  the  sanc- 
tuaries.    It  regulates  the  symbolism  of  .architecture,  of  sculpture 
and  of  painting,  as  well  as  the  ceremonies  of  worship,  and  the 
costume  of  priests.     This  primary  materialization  confines  the 
divine  language  under  impenetrable  veils. 

618.  The  Profane  Language,  the   material   expression   of 
symbols,   is   the   provision    assigned   to   nations   given   up   to 
idolatry. 

619.  At  first,  God  speaks  to  man  the  heavenly  language  con- 
tained in  the  Bible,  and  the  most  ancient  religious  codes  of  the 
East ;  but  soon  the  sons  of  Adam  forget  this  heritage,  and  God 
reiterates  the  word  under  the  symbols  of  the  consecrated  lan- 
guage.    It  regulates  the  costume  of  Aaron,  and  of  the  Levites, 
and  the  rites  of  worship.     Religion  becomes  exterior.     Man 
wishes  to  see  it,  for  he  no  more  feels  it  within  him. 

620.  In  the  last  degree  of  corruption,  humanity  only  compre- 
hends the  material.     Accordingly,  the  divine  word  becomes  in- 
carnate, to  make  it  heard  in  the  profane  language,  as  a  last  echo 
of  eternal  truth. 

621.  The  history  of  symbolic  colors  testifies  this  triple  origin. 
Each  gradation  of  color  bears  different  significations  in  each  of 
the  three  languages  :  Divine,  Consecrated,  and  Profane. 

622.  Let  us  briefly  follow  the    historical    development  of 
these  symbols. 

623.  The  most  ancient  religious  traditions  inform  us  that  the 
Iranians  assign  to  each  planet  a  beneficent  or  a  malignant  in- 
fluence, according  to  their  color  and  degree  of  light. 

624.  In  Genesis,  God  says  to  Noah  :  "  The  rainbow  shall  be 
the  sign  of  the  covenant  between  me  and  the  earth."     In  my- 
thology, Iris  is  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  and  of  good  things ; 
and  the  colors  of  the  rainbow,  and  of  the  cincture  of  Iris,  are 
the  symbols  of  regeneration,  which  is  the  covenant  of  God  and 
man. 

625.  In  Egypt,  the  robe  of  Isis  was  resplendent  with  all 


SYMBOLIC  COLORS.  195 

colors,  and  every  hue  displayed  in  nature.  Osiris,  the  god  all- 
powerful,  gives  the  life ;  Isis  modifies  it,  and  transmits  it  to  man 
by  reflection.  Iris  is  reflection,  the  earth  and  her  symbolic  robe 
were  the  hieroglyphics  of  the  material  and  the  spiritual  world. 

02 G.  The  fathers  of  the  church  saw  in  the  old  testament  the 
symbols  of  the  new  covenant.  If  the  religion  of  Christ  be  of 
God,  and  the  children  of  Abraham  received  the  Holy  Word, 
the  two  tables  of  the  Mosaic  and  of  the  Christian  law,  would 
unite  in  one  common  expression.  Joseph  was  a  symbol  of  tfoe 
Messiah,  and  his  robe,  diapered  with  the  most  beautiful  tints, 
which  his  father  gave  him,  was,  says  St.  Cyril,  the  emblem  of 
his  divine  attributes. 

627.  Such  were  the  symbols  of  divine  language  when  conse 
crated  language  was  instituted. 

628.  Religion  gave  birth  to  the  arts.     It  was  to  ornament 
temples  and  sacred  precincts  that  sculpture  and  painting  were 
first  introduced.     This  fact  is  applicable,  not  only  to  the  history 
of  the  human  race,  but  is  found  true  in  the  origin  of  every 
people.     In  the  most  ancient  monuments  of  India  and  Egypt, 
as  in  those  of  the  middle  ages,  Architecture,  Sculpture,  and 
Painting,  are  the  material  expressions  of  religious  ideas. 

629.  Painting  among  the  Hindoos,  the  Egyptians,  and  in  our 
own  days,  among  the  Chinese,  imposes  its  regulations  in  the 
national  worship  and  politic  laws.     The  least  alteration  in  the 
drawing  or  coloring  incurs  a  serious  punishment. 

630.  The  Egyptian  priests  would  not  allow  metal  founders 
or  statuaries  to  make  representations  of  the  gods,  for  fear  they 
would  deviate  from  established  laws.     No  artist  was  allowed  to 
make  the  slightest  variation,  either  in  color  or  form,  and  an 
investigation  of  the  subject  shows  that  they  wrought  from  the 
same  prescribed  laws  century  after  century. 

631.  At  Rome,  the  penalty  of  death  was  incurred  by  selling 
or  being  clothed  in  a  purple  stuff.     At  this  day,  in  China,  the 
punishment  is  three  hundred  stripes,  and  three  years  imprison- 


196  STUDY  OF  ART. 

ment  to  any  one  who  wears  or  buys  clothes  with  the  proscribed 
designs  of  the  Phoenix  and  the  Dragon. 

632.  Symbolism  explains  this  severity  of  laws  and  customs. 
Some  religious  idea  was  attached  to  each  form  and  to  every 
color,  and  to  change  or  alter  was  a  crime  of  apostacy  or  rebel- 
lion.    Art  being  the  depository  and  interpreter  of  sacred  mys- 
teries, the  form  and  color  of  sacred  objects,  were  essentially 
restrictive.     Perspective,  chiaro-scuro,  and  demi-tints,  would 
have  led  to  confusion.     Therefore,  they  were  unknown,  or  their 
manifestation  severely  repressed. 

633.  Reverting  to  the  origin  of  writing,  color  evidently  was 
the  first  mode  of  transmitting  thought  and  preserving  memory. 
The   quipos   of  Peru  and    the    Chinese,    strings  tinted   with 
various  colors,  formed  the  archives,  religious,  political  and  ad- 
ministrative of  these  primitive  people.     Colors  are  important 
in  the  paintings  of  the  Mexicans,  and  the  Egyptian  hierogly- 
phics were  the  apogee,  and  the  last  term  of  this  symbolic 
writing,  (p) 

634.  The  profane  language  of  colors  was  a  degradation  from 
the  divine  and  the  consecrated  languages.     Traces  reappear 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.     In  scenic  representations,  the 
colors  were  significant.     A  curious  passage  of  Pollux  explains 
these  emblems  employed  in  the  costume  of  the  theatre.     Tradi- 
tion still  finds  them  there,  but  materialized  in  our  own  times. 

635.  Christianity,  in   recalling  the  forgotten    significations, 
restored  a  new  energy  to  the  language  of  colors.     The  doctrine 
taught  by  Christ  was  not,  therefore,  new,  since  it  borrowed  the 
symbols  of  ancient  religions.     The  Son  of  God,  in  leading  man- 
kind back  to  truth,  came  not  to  change,  but  to  fulfil  the  law. 
This  law  was  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  revealed  primitively 
to  all  men,  and  preserved  in  the  holy  ark  of  Judaism.     Moses 
and  the  prophets  quote  some  sacred  books,  which  are  not  found 
in  the  Bible.     The  wars  of  the  Lord,  the  prophecies,  and  the 
book  of  the  Just*  had  then  announced  the    Divine   word  to 

*  See  Numbers,  xxi.     Jeremiah,  xlviii.     2  Kings,  chap.  i.     Joshua,  x. 
1  Kings,  chap,  xi.,  v.  41. 


SYMBOLIC  COLORS.  197 

other  nations.     We  shall  find  manifest  proof  of  this  in  investi- 
gating the  monuments  of  antiquity  of  the  middle  ages. 

636.  The  three  languages  of  colors — divine,  consecrated,  and 
profane — classify,  in  Europe,  the  three  estates  of  society :  the 
clergy,  the  nobles,  and  the  people. 

637.  The  large  glass  windows  of  Christian  churches,  like  the 
paintings  of  Egypt,  have  a  double  signification :  the  apparent 
and  the  hidden.     The  one  is  for  the  uninitiated,  the  other  ap- 
plies itself  to  the  mystic  creeds.    The  theocratic  era  lasts  to  the 
renaissance,   (q)    At  this  epoch,  symbolic  expression  becomes 
extinct.     The  divine  language  of  colors  is  forgotten,  painting 
ceases  to  be  a  science,  and  is  practiced  only  as  an  art. 

638.  The  aristocratic  era  commences.     Symbolism,  banished 
from   the  church,  takes  refuge  at  the  court.     Disdained   by 
painting,  it  is  found  again  in  heraldry. 

639.  The  origin  of  armorial  bearings  loses  itself  in  the  dark 
ages,  and  appears  connected  with  the  first  elements  of  writing. 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  like  the  earliest  Aztic  paintings,  indi- 
cate the  signification  of  a  subject  by  emblems,  or  speaking  arms. 
To  remove  any  doubts  on  this  point,  it  is  sufficient  to  glance 
over  the  Mexican  paintings  with  the  explanations  that  have 
been  presented  to  us.     The  representation  of  Egyptian  and 
Indian  divinities,  compounded  of  monstrous  human  and  animal 
forms,  had  doubtless  a  hidden  meaning.     In   Greece,  the  pro- 
gress of  art  liberated  sculpture  and  painting  from  these  hybrid 
creations,  but  the  divinities  were   confounded  in  a  similar  type. 
Attributes  were  given  them.     Jupiter  had  for  arms,  the  eagle 
and  the  thunderbolt.     Minerva,  the  olive  and  the  owl.     Venus, 
the  dove. 

640.  The  middle  ages  renewed  the  strange  creations  of  re- 
mote antiquity,  and  mixed  compositions  appear  on  the  most 
ancient  monuments  of  Christian  art,  for  Christianity,  as  well  as 
Paganism,  must  borrow  symbolical  language  to  paint  its  dogmas. 

641.  The  emblazoned  shields  of  the  nobles  are  barred  with 
iron,  as  the  only  mode  of  recognizing  the  knights  in  the  melee. 
In  their  origin  all  arts  were  significant.     The  kingdom  of  Gre- 


198  STUDY   OF  ART. 

nada  had  nine  grenades,  that  of  Galicia  a  chalice,  that  of  Leon 
a  lion,  and  that  of  Castile  a  castle.  Afterwards  heraldry  per- 
petuated in  families  the  memory  of  great  actions  and  high  deeds 
of  arms,  but  the  primitive  signification  was  frequently  forgotten. 
In  these  representations,  where  everything  was  emblematic, 
colors  doubtless  had  their  meaning.  Authors  of  the  heraldic 
art  affirm  it,  and  we  have  preserved  the  meaning  of  metals  and 
enamels  of  which  the  tradition  extends  to  the  Greeks. 

642.  The  traditions  of  antiquity  preserved  the  colors  of  her- 
aldry pure  for  a  long  period,   and  on  some  monuments   the 
solemn  language   of  arms  facilitates  the  apprehension  of  the 
divine  language  employed  in  the  principal  subject,  as  phonetic 
writing  enclosed  in  a  cartouche,  gives  the  name  of  the  person- 
age represented  on  Egyptian  anaglyphs.     The  gallantry  of  the 
Moors,  and  their  amorous  mysticism,  closed  the  aristocratic  era, 
and  introduced  the  popular  language  of  colors,  which  is  pre- 
served to  the  present  time. 

643.  The  seclusion  of  females  in  the  East,  gave  a  new  im- 
portance to  the  emblems  of  colors.     They  replaced  the  colloquial 
language,  as  the  selam  or  symbolic  bouquet  became  the  writ- 
ten language  of  love. 

644.  Among  the  Arabs,  as  amongst  all  nations,  that  language 
had  a  religious  origin.     In  ancient  Persia,  the  spirits  or  genii 
had  flowers  consecrated  to  them.     This  symbolic  Flora  is  found 
in  India  and  in  Egypt,  in  Greece  and  at  Rome. 

645.  The  selam  of  the  Arabs  appears  to  have  borrowed  its 
emblems  from  the  language  of  colors.     The  Koran  gives  the 
mystic  reason.     The  colors  that  the  earth  exhibits  to  our  eyes, 
says  Mahomet,  are  manifest  signs  for  those  who  think.     This 
remarkable  passage  explains  the  diapered  robe  borne  by  Isis 
or  Nature  conceived  as  a  vast  hieroglyphic.     The  colors  which 
shine  on  the  earth  correspond  to  the  shadows  which  the  seer 
perceives  in  the  world  of  spirits,  where  all  is  spiritual  and  con- 
sequently significant.     Such,  at  least,  is  the  origin  of  the  sym 
bolism  of  colors  in  the  books  of  prophecy  and  the  Apocalyps- 


SYMBOLIC  COLORS.  199 

The  Koran  reproduces  the  same  theory  in  the  visions  and  cos- 
tumes  of  Mahomet. 

(M  0.  The  Moors  of  Spain  materializing  these  symbols,  formed 
a  hmii'iiuiiv,  which  had  its  principles  and  its  dictionary.  A 
modern  author  has  given  a  catalogue  of  more  than  sixty  of 
these  emblematic  colors,  their  meaning  and  their  combinations. 
France  has  adopted  them,  and  preserves  their  traces  in  modern 
language.  Blue  is  still  the  emblem  of  fidelity,  yellow  of  jeal- 
ousy, red  of  cruelty,  white  of  innocence,  black  of  sadness  and 
mourning,  and  green,  of  hope. 

647.  Thus  ends  the  symbolism  of  colors,  and  however  its  last 
expression  may  be  materialized,  it  yet  testifies  its  noble  origin. 
Modern  painting  still  preserves  its  tradition  in  church  pictures. 
St.  John  wears  a  green  robe,  Christ  and  the  Virgin  are  draped 
in  red  and  blue,  and  God  in  white.     Symbolism,  that  ancient 
science,  became  an  art,  and  is  at  present  little  more  than  an 
affair  of  the  workshop. 

648.  According  to  symbolism,  two  principles,  light  and  dark- 
ness, produce  all  colors.     Light  is  represented  by  white,  and 
darkness  by  black.     But  light  does  not  exist  except  by  fire,  the 
symbol  of  which  is  red.     Setting  out  from  this  basis,  symbolism 
admits  two  primitive  colors — red  and  white.     Black  was  con- 
sidered the  negation  of  colors,  and  attributed  to  the  spirit  of 
darkness.     Red  is  the  symbol  of  divine  love,  white  the  symbol 
of  divine  wisdom.     From  these  two  attributes  of  God,  love  and 
wisdom,  the  creation  of  the  universe  emanates. 

649.  Secondary  colors  represent  different  combinations  of 
the  two  principles  in  their  symbolical  meaning. 

650.  Yellow  emanates  from  red  and  white.     It  is  the  symbol 
of  the  revelation  of  the  love  and  of  the  wisdom  of  God. 

651.  Blue  emanates  likewise  from  red  and  white.     It  indL 
cates  divine  wisdom  manifested  by  life,  by  the  spirit  or  the 
breath  of  God  (azure,  air).     It  is  the  symbol  or  the  spirit  of 
truth.     St.  John,  xv.,  17,  and  xvi.,  13. 

652.  Green  is  formed  by  the  union  of  yellow  and  blue.     It 
indicates  the  manifestation  of  love  and  wisdom  in  action.     It 


200  STUDY  OF  ART. 

was  the  symbol  of  charity,  and  of  the  regeneration  of  the  soul 
by  works. 

653.  The  compound  hues,  rose,  purple,  hyacinth,  violet,  gray, 
tan,  etc.,  receive  their  significations  from  the  colors  that  com- 
pose them.     That  which  predominates,  gives  to  the  hue  its 
general  signification,  and  that  which  is  subordinate,  the  modified. 
Thus  purple,  which  is  of  a  red  azure,  signifies  the  love  of 
truth.     Hyacinth,  which  is  of  a  blue  purple,  signifies  the  truth 
of  love.    These  two  significations  would  seem  to  confound  them- 
selves at  their  source,  but  the  applications  will  show  the  differ- 
ence that  exists  between  them. 

654.  The  rule  of  oppositions  is  common  to  the  language  of 
colors,  as  well  as  to  symbols  in  general.     It  attributes  to  them 
the  signification  opposed  to  that  which  they  possess  directly.    In 
Genesis,  the  serpent  represents  the  evil  spirit,  and  the  fathers 
of  the  church  call  the  Messiah  the  good  serpent.     In  Egypt 
water  was  the  symbol  of  regeneration,  and  the  sea  was  repre- 
sented by  Typhon,  the  type  of  moral  degradation.     Thus  red 
signifies  love,  egotism,  and  hatred.     Green  signifies  wisdom  and 
folly,  celestial   regeneration   and   infernal  degradation.      This 
rule,  far  from  causing  obscurity,  or  arbitrariness  in  the  signifi- 
cation of  symbols,  gives  them  an  energy  unknown  to  common 
expressions.     Therefore,  in  the  symbolism  of  colors,  it  has  been 
preserved  as  one  of  its  greatest  beauties.      Black  united  to 
other  colors  in  effect  gives  them  a  contrary  signification.     Black, 
the  symbol  of  evil  and  falsehood,  is  not  a  color,  but  the  nega- 
tion of  all  hues,  and  of  that  which  they  represent.     Thus,  red 
designates  divine  love.     United  with  black,  it  is  the  symbol  of 
infernal  love,  of  egotism,  of  hatred,  and  of  all  the  passions  of 
degraded  man. 

OF   WHITE   AS   A    CONSECRATED   LANGUAGE. 

655.  The  priest  represents  the  Deity  on  earth.  In  all  reli- 
gions, the  sovereign  pontiff  had  white  vestments,  symbol  of 
uncreated  light. 


SYMBOLIC    COLORS.  201 

656.  Jehovah  commanded  Aaron  not  to  enter  the  sanctuary 
unless  clothed  in  white.     "  Speak  to  Aaron,  thy  brother,  (said 
he  to  Moses)  that  he  enter  not  into  the  sanctuary  at  all  times 
lest  he  die ;  for  I  will  reveal  myself  on  the  mercy-seat.     He 
shall  be  invested  with  the  holy  linen  robe,  girt  with  the  linen 
cincture,  and  he  shall  wear  the  mitre  of  linen.     These  are  holy 
vestments."     Lev.  xvi. 

657.  The  magi  wore  white  robes,  and  said  the  divinity  was 
not  pleased  but  with  white  vestments.      White  horses  were 
sacrificed  to  the  sun,  the  image  of  divine  light.     The  white 
tunic  given  by  Ormusd,  the  luminous  god,  is  still  the  character- 
istic costume  of  the  Parses. 

658.  In  Egypt,  a  white  tiara  decorates  the  head  of  Osiris. 
His  ornaments  are  white,  as  were   those  of  Aaron,  and   the 
Egyptian  priests  wear  the  linen  robe  like  that  of  Levi.     In 
Greece,  Pythagoras  ordered  the  sacred  hymns  to  be  chanted  in 
white  robes.     The  priests  of  Jupiter  had  white  vestments.     At 
Rome,  the  flamen  dialis  alone  had  the  right  to  wear  a  white 
tiara.     The  victims  offered  to  Jupiter  were  white.     Plato  and 
Cicero  consecrate  this  color  to  the  Deity. 

659.  Returning  into  Asia,  the  same  symbol  is  adopted  by  the 
Brahmins.     Traversing  Tartary,  it  is  again  found  among  the 
Scandinavians,  the  Germans,  and  the  Celts.     Pliny  relates  that 
the  Druids  wore  white  vestments,  and  sacrificed  white  oxen. 
Finally,  the  Christian  painters  of  the  middle  ages  represent  the 
Eternal  draped  in  white,  and  also  Jesus  Christ,  after  the  resur- 
rection.    The  chief  of  the  Roman  church  wears  on  earth  the 
livery  of  God. 

660.  In  the  sacred  language  of  the  bible,  white  vestments 
are  the  symbols  of  the  regeneration  of  souls,  and  the  recom- 
pense of  the  elect.     "He  who  conquers,  shall  be  clothed  in 
white,"  says  the  Scripture,  "and  I  will  not  efface  his  name 
from  the  book  of  life.    The  kingdom  of  heaven  belongs  to  those 
who  have  washed  and  whitened  their  robes  in  the  blood  of  the 
Lamb." 

661.  White  was  consecrated  to  the  dead  by  all  antiquity,  and 

9* 


202  STUDY   OF  ART. 

became  also  a  color  of  mourning.  The  monuments  of  Thebes 
represented  the  shades  of  the  departed  clothed  in  white  robes. 
According  to  Herodotus,  the  Egyptians  enveloped  the  dead  in 
white  sheets.  This  custom  is  found  in  Greece  from  the  highest 
antiquity.  Homer  mentions  it  at  the  death  of  Patroclus.  Py- 
thagoras orders  its  observance  to  his  disciples  as  a  happy  pre- 
sage of  immortality.  Plutarch  recalls  the  doctrine  of  this 
philosopher,  and  explains  the  symbol  which  was  customary 
throughout  Greece. 

662.  Pausanias  observed  the  same  custom  among  the  Mes- 
senians.     They  enshrouded  chief  personages  in  white  vestments 
and  crowned  them.     This  double  symbol  indicated  the  triumph 
of  the  soul  over  the  empire  of  darkness. 

663.  The  Hebrews  had  the  same  custom.     The  Evangelist 
Matthew,  says  that  Joseph,  having  taken  the  body  of  the  Lord, 
wrapped  it  in  a  white  linen  cloth ;  and  this  example  became 
the  law  of  all  Christians. 

664.  The  initiation,  or  regeneration  of  the  soul,  commences 
by  an  image  of  death.     The  mystics  were  clothed  in  white,  and 
the  neophytes  of  the  primitive  church,  wore  a  white  robe  during 
eight  days.     Young  girls,  catechumens,  still  wear  it.     And  in 
the  obsequies  of  virgins,  white  draperies  testify  their  innocence 
and  celestial  initiation. 

665.  It  is  unnecessary  to  pursue  the  history"  of  these  rites  in 
the  East.     It  is  sufficient  to  cite  an  example  from  the  Japanese 
custom.     In  Japan,  marriage  is  considered  as  a  new  existence 
to  the  female.     She  dies  to  her  past  life  to  revive  to  her  hus- 
band.    The  bed  of  the  betrothed  is  placed  with   the   pillow 
towards  the  north,  similar  to  the  practice  for  the  dead,  and  she 
wears  the  white  mortuary  robe.     This  ceremony  announces  to 
the  parents  that  they  are  about  to  lose  their  daughter. 

OF   YELLOW   AS    A    CONSECRATED    LANGUAGE. 

666.  In  the  Bible,  the  sun  represents  love  divine,  when  it  is 
opposed  to  the  moon — symbol  of  wisdom.     It  is  also  of  the 
gold  which  indicates  the  goodness  of  God,  opposed  to  silver, 


SYMBOLIC  COLORS.  203 

emblem  of  divine  truth.  The  sun,  gold,  and  yellow,  are  not 
synonymes,  but  mark  different  degrees  which  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  with  precision.  The  natural  sun  is  the  symbol  of  the 
spiritual  Son.  Gold  expressed  the  natural  sun,  and  yellow  was 
the  emblem  of  gold. 

GO 7.  Gold  was  consecrated  to  Horus.  Also  to  Vishnou,  and 
to  Mithras.  Appollo  is  the  same  divinity,  representative  of  one 
and  the  same  dogma.  But  in  its  progress  from  east  to  west,  the 
myth  becomes  materialized,  and  in  Greece,  Apollo  is  the 
personification  of  the  sun. 

668.  The   symbol   becomes    God.     The   people   adore   the 
Heavenly  host.      Sabeism  reigns  in  the  East.     Then  Abra- 
ham goes  forth  from  Chaldea.     The  idols  are  destroyed,  still 
the  symbol  remains  the  same.   Moses  appeared  to  the  Israelites 
shining  with  light,  and  rays  illuminated  his  face.     The  prophet 
Habakkuk  announces  the  coming  of  the  Holy  one.     His  splen- 
dor, says  he,  shall  shine  as  a  living  light.   Rays  shall  issue  from 
his  hand.     It  is  there  where  his  strength  is  hidden.     The  hand 
was  the  emblem  of  power,  and  the  rays  of  the  sun  designate 
the  manifestation  of  the  love  and  the  wisdom  of  God. 

669.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  fathers  of  the 
church,  by  the  example  of  the  prophets,  named  Jesus  Christ, 
the  light,  the  sun,  the  east,  and  that  gold  should  be  his  symbol. 
It  is  apparent  why    Christian    artists  gave  to  Jesus   Christ 
flaxen   hair — golden,   like   Apollo's,    and    placed    the     glory 
(aureole)  round  his  head,  and  also  on  that  of  the  Virgin  and 
the  apostles.     In  Egypt  the  circle  of  gold  figured  the  course 
of  the  sun,  and  the  accomplishment  of  the  year.     The  Messiah, 
the  divine  sun,  accomplished  a  religious  period.     He  opened 
a  new  era  of  which  the  aureole,  or  crown  of  glory  was  the 
natural  symbol,  (r) 

670.  In  consecrated  language,  gold  and  yellow  received  the 
particular  acceptation  of  revelation  made  by  the  priest,  or  of 
religious  doctrines  taught  in  the  temples.     This  metal  and  this 
color  represented  initiation  to  the  mysteries,  or  the  light  revealed 
to  the  profane. 


204:  STUDY    OF  ART. 

671.  Annubis  is  the  personification  of  the  Egyptian  initiator. 
The  dog  was   consecrated  to  this  deity,  because  he  was  the 
guardian  of  the  holy  doctrine  shut  up  in  the  sanctuaries.    Egyp- 
tian monuments  represent  him  with  the  head  of  a  dog,  and 
Virgil  and  Ovid  give  him  the  name  of  a  barker.     Sirius,  or  the 
dog-star,  was,  according  to  the  Persians,  the  sentinel  of  heaven, 
and  the  guardian  of  the  gods.   The  sick  implored  his  aid  before 
dying,  and  gave  a  little  food  to  a  dog  that  was  led  to  the  bed. 
The  dog,  it  was  said,  was  the  symbol  of  the  great  initiation  to 
the  mysteries  of  death. 

672.  Color  is  the  thread  of  Ariadne,  which  guides  us  in  the 
labrynth  of  ancient  religions.     The  dog  initiator,  who  strikes 
and  repulses  the  spirits  of  darkness,  had,  according  to  the  Zent- 
Avesta,  the  eyes  and  eye-brows  yellow,  and  ears  white  and  yel- 
low.    The    yellow    eye  was    the    emblem    of   understanding 
enlightened  by  revelation.     The  ears,  white  and  yellow,  figur- 
ed the  instruction  of  the  holy  doctrine,  which  is  divine  wis- 
dom revealed. 

673.  The  statues  of  Annubis  were  of  gold  or  gilt.    The  name 
of  this  divinity,  which  is  again  found  in  the  Coptic  language, 
signifies  equally  gold  or  gilt,  Annul).    Annubis,  as  a  personifica- 
tion of  the  human  sciences,  took  the  name  of  Thot,  of  which  the 
Greeks  make  Hermes,  and  the  Romans,  Mercury. 

674.  Mercury  Hermanubis  is  the  interpreter  and  messenger 
of  the  gods.     He  conducts  the  ghosts  into  hell.     A  chain  of 
gold  issues  from  his  mouth,  and  is  attached  to  the  ears  of  those 
whom  he  wishes  to  lead.     He  holds  in  his  hand  a  golden  rod. 
One  half  of  his  countenance  is  represented  bright,  and  the  other 
half  dark — emblems  of  initiation  and  of  death — where  the  strug- 
gle of  the  two  antagonistic  principles,  light  and  darkness,  are 
re-produced. 

675.  Greek  art,  enamored  by  beauty  of  form,  took  from  Her- 
manubis his  characteristic  symbol,  the  head  of  the  dog;  but 
this  animal,  separated   from  the  divinity,  does  not  less  pre- 
serve its  sacred  signification.     The  temple  of  Vulcan  on  Etna, 


SYMBOLIC   COLORS.  205 

* 

it  is  said,  was  guarded  by  dogs.  They  attracted  the  virtuous  by 
their  caresses,  and  destroyed  the  impious. 

676.  Mercury   was   the   tutelar   divinity   of  thieves.     The 
ancients  saw  in  this  attribute  a  symbol  of  the  mysteries  with- 
drawn from  the  cognizance  of  the  vulgar.     The  priests  con- 
cealed  the   gold   symbol   of  the  light   from  the  gaze  of  the 
profane. 

677.  The  fable  of  the  Hesperides  offers  a  novel  proof  of  the 
signification  which  is  given  to  gold  in  the  mysteries.     "  The 
Hesperides,  according  to  Hesiod,  were  daughters  of  Night,  and 
according  to  Cherecrates,  of  Phorcus  and  Ceto,  divinities  of  the 
sea.     Juno  intermarrying  with  Jupiter,  gave  him  some  apple- 
trees  which  bore  golden  fruits.     These  trees  were  placed  in  the 
garden  of  the  Hesperides,  under  the  guardianship  of  a  dragon, 
according  to  Pisander,  or  of  Typhon  and  Echidne,  according  to 
Pherecydes.    This  horrible  dragon  had  a  hundred  heads.     The 
apple  trees,  that  he  watched  incessantly,  had  surprising  virtue. 
It  was  one  of  these  apples  that  embroiled  the  three  goddesses  in 
discord.     It  was  with  the  same  fruit  that  Hippomenes  softened 
the  fierce  Atalanta.     Eurystheus  commanded  Hercules  to  seek 
these  apples.     Hercules  besought  the  nymphs  who  dwelt  near 
Eridan  to  inform  him  where  he  should  find  the  Hesperides. 
These  nymphs  sent  him  back  to  Nereus ;  Nereus  to  Prome- 
theus, who  told  him  what  to  do.     Hercules  transported  himself 
into  Mauritania,  killed  the  dragon,  brought  the  golden  apples 
to  Eurystheus,  and  this  accomplished  his  twelfth  labor." 

678.  The  golden  apples  are  the  fruits  of  intelligence,  which '»/ 
are  born  of  the  love  of  God.    In  uniting  herself  to  Jupiter,  Juno 
offers  them  to  him.    They  are  kept  in  the  garden  of  the  Hespe- 
rides, daughters  of  the  marine  deities.     That  is  to  say,  in  the 
sanctuary  of  the  temples,  and  confided  to  the  initiated,  children 

of  the  waters  or  of  baptism.  The  dragon,  the  son  of  Darkness, 
of  Typhon  or  the  Earth,  is  the  emblem  of  human  passions  and 
vices,  which  permi^  not  the  profane  to  taste  of  these  spiritual 
fruits.  Hercules  or  the  neophyte  performs  the  last  of  his  works 
in  seizing  them.  He  is  sent  back  to  the  nymphs,  to  the  marine 


206  STUDY   OF  AKT. 

deities,  and  at  length  to  Prometheus,  who  initiates  him  in  the 
mysteries.  Prometheus  had  formed  man  from  the  clay  of  the 
earth,  and  animated  him  with  fire  snatched  from  the  celestial 
bodies.  Nereus  and  Prometheus,  or  fire  and  water,  recall  the 
double  baptism  of  the  antique  initiations  like  those  of  Chris- 
tianity. 

679.  The  sun,  gold  and  yellow,  were  the  symbols  of  the 
human  understanding,   enlightened   or   illuminated   by  divine 
revelation.     It  is  in  this  sense  that  the  Prophet  Daniel  says, 
"  that  those  who  are  wise  shall  be  shining  as  light,  and  that 
those  who  shall  influence  others  to  do  justly,  shall  shine  eter- 
nally as  the  stars.     Solomon  expresses  the  same  idea,  in. saying 
that  the  head  of  the  wise  is  of  the  purest  gold.     Jesus  Christ 
announces  that  the  just  shall  shine  as  the  sun,  in  the  kingdom 
of  his  Father. 

680.  Gold  and  yellow  were,  in  Christian  symbolism,  the  em- 
blems of  faith.     St.  Peter,  the  stay  of  the  church,  and  guardian 
of  the  holy  doctrine,  was  represented  by  the  illuminators  and 
miniaturists  of  the  middle  ages  with  a  golden  yellow  robe,  and 
the  rod  or  the  key  in  his  hand.     These  attributes  are  those  of 
Mercury  Hermanubis.     In  China,  yellow  is  equally  the  symbol 
of  faith. 

681.  The'ancients  compared  to  gold  that  which  they  judged 
faultless  and  exceedingly  beautiful.     By  the  age  of  gold,  they 
understood  the  age  of  happiness  and  virtue ;  and  by  the  golden 
verses,   according   to   Hierocles,  verses   which  contained   the 
purest  doctrine.     We  again  meet  with  this   tradition  in  the 
golden  legends  of  the  saints. 

682.  Food  of  a  golden  yellow  color  became  emblematic  of  the 
love  and  the  wisdom  of  God,  which  man  appropriates  to  him- 
self or  eats,  to  speak  symbolically.     The   divine  poet  Isaiah 
says,  that  he  who  shall  refuse  the  evil  and  choose  the  good, 
shall  eat  of  butter  and  honey.     Job  exclaims,  that  the  wicked 
shall  not  see  the  floods  of  butter  and  honey.     In  the  Song  of 
Songs,  Solomon  addresses  his  mystic  spouse,  whose  lips  distil  as 


SYMBOLIC  COLORS.  207 

the  honey- comb.     Thus  in  the  Iliad,  from  the  mouth  of  the  sage 
Nestor,  words  dropped  sweeter  than  honey. 

:.  Virgil  calls  honey  the  celestial  gift  distilled  from  the 
dew,  and  dew  was  the  emblem  of  initiation.  Pliny  gives  it 
the  epithet,  the  effusion  from  heaven,  the  saliva  of  the  stars. 

684.  The  symbol  of  divine  revelation,  became  that  of  sacred 
and  poetic  inspiration.     The  Mellissa,  or  bees,  were  inspired 
women,  who  prophesied  in  the  temples  of  Greece.     Popular 
legends  narrate  that  bees  reposed  on  the  lips  of  Plato,  in  his 
cradle ;  and  that  Pindar,  when  exposed  in  the  woods,  in  his  in- 
fancy, was  nourished  with  honey.     The  first  Christians,  and  the 
disciples  of  Mithras,  gave  honey  to  be  tasted  by  the  mystics,  and 
made  them  wash  their  hands  with  honey.     Cakes  of  honey  were 
offered  in  sacrifice  by  most  nations  of  antiquity. 

685.  The  sweetness  of  this  aliment  was  doubtless  one  of  the 
motives  of  its  symbolic  attribution,  but  its  color  was  the  princi- 
pal basis.     Ovid,  wishing  to  express  that  wisdom  enlightens  the 
understanding,  gives  to  Minerva  the  epithet  of  yellow.     On  the 
contrary,  unwholesome  and  wild  aliments  took,  by  their  golden 
color,  an  inverse  signification.     The  precursor  of  the  Messiah 
came  to  announce  a  new  revelation  at  the  epoch  when  the 
ancient  was  forgotten  or  misunderstood,  and,  in  the  desert,  he 
was  fed  with  locust  and  wild  honey.      This  exhibits  the  first 
example  of  the  rule  of  oppositions. 

686.  In  a  celestial   sense,   light,    gold,  and  yellow,  evince 
divine  love  enlightening  the  human  understanding.     In  the  in- 
fernal sense,  it  denotes  that  odiously  proud  egotism,  which  seeks 
no  wisdom  but  its  own,  which  becomes  its  own  god,  its  own 
principle  and  end. 

687.  According  to  St.  Paul,  Satan  transforms  himself  into  an 
angel  of  light.     Jesus   Christ  says  :  "  Beware  that  the  light 
which  is  in  you  be  not  darkness."     In  this  state  of  separation 
from  God  and  isolation,  man  sullies  his  soul  by  an  earthly  love, 
which  he  ought  to  offer  up  pure  to  his  Creator.     In  the  sym- 

^lism  of  the  Bible,  Sodom  is  the  figure  of  that  degradation, 
'oh,  at  its  last  boundaries,  betrays  him  into  infamous  crimes. 


208  STUDY  OF  ART. 

Sulphur  represents  the  same  idea,  because  of  its  color  and  com- 
bustion, which  generates  a  suffocating  smoke. 

688.  The  rain  of  sulphur,  which  consumed  Sodom,  is  the 
strong  image  of  the  depraved  passions  which  devour  the  heart 
of  the  impious,  and  brutalize  their  intellect.     "  In  the  day  that 
Lot  went  out  of  Sodom,"  says  Jesus  Christ,  "  a  rain  of  fire  and 
of  sulphur  fell  from  heaven,  and  destroyed  all.     It  will  be  the 
same  in  that  day  when  the  Son  of  man  shall  appear.     Whoso- 
ever will  seek  to  save  his  life  shall  lose  it,  and  whosoever  will 
lose  it  shall  save  it."     Thus,  when  human  passions  shall  have 
degraded  religious  belief,  the  divinity  will  manifest  himself 
anew  on  the  earth.     Those  who  will  attach  themselves  to  ter- 
restrial life,  shall  lose  life  eternal — the  life  of  the  soul — and 
those  who  renounce  worldly  existence,  shall  save  their  spiritual 
existence. 

689.  The  sense  assigned  to  the  word  sulphur  is  absolute, 
and,  in  the  Bible,  is  without  any  exception.     "  The  light  of  the 
wicked,"  says  Job,  "  shall  be  put  out,  and  their  fire  shall  not 
glimmer ;  the  light  which  lightens  their  houses  shall  be  obscure, 
and  their  lamp  shall  be  extinct.     God  will  shower  sulphur  upon 
the  place  where  they  make  their  dwelling  ;  they  shall  be  chased 
from  the  light  into  darkness ;  they  will  be  banished  from  the 
world."     The  Psalmist,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Apocalypse,  con- 
firm the  signification  of  this  symbol. 

690.  Lastly,  in  Paganism,  sulphur  was  employed  for  the 
purification  of  the  guilty,  because  it  was  the  symbol  of  guilt. 

691.  By  understanding  these  chief  colors,  it  becomes  easy  to 
comprehend  the  signification  of  the  four  ages,  represented  by 
the  four  metals  :  the  Golden  Age,  the  Silver  Age,  the  Brazen 
Age,  and  the  Iron  Age.     Gold  is  the  symbol  of  divine  love  re- 
vealed to  man.      Silver,  by  its  whiteness,  designates  divine 
wisdom.     Brass,  or  copper,  false  gold,  denotes  degraded  love, 
or  religion  materialized.     Iron,  by  its  sombre  gray  color,  indi- 
cates wisdom  perverted,  and  truth  misunderstood.     It  is  thus 
the  statue  described  in  the  book  of  Daniel  is  explained.     His 
head  was  of  refined  gold,  his  breast  and  arms  of  silver,  his  belly 


SYMBOLIC    COLORS.  209 

and  thighs  of  brass,  and  his  feet  of  clay  and  iron.  The  profane 
era,  the  age  of  brass,  materializes  worship;  idolatry  arises,  ex- 
tends its  roots,  and  stifles  religious  truth.  The  iron  age,  the 
age  of  dissolution,  appears  the  age  of  human  wisdom,  which 
seeks  not  light  but  in  itself,  turns  into  derision  the  altered  faith, 
examines  creeds  only  in  their  degradation,  and  saps  the  feet  of 
iron  and  of  clay  of  the  colossus,  which  falls,  and  is  shattered. 

BED    AS    A    CONSECRATED    LANGUAGE. 

692.  Sacrifices,  in  their  original  institution,  were  symbols  of 
the  love  of  man  for  his  Creator.     The  first  fruits  of  harvests 
and  of  animals  were  presented  on  the  altars,  emblems  of  devo- 
tion and  love. 

693.  The  sacrificial  fire  in  Jadjour-Veda  is  the  symbol  of  the 
celestial  fire  that  dwells  in  the  heart.    In  the  Sanscrit,  different 
expressions,  which  designate  fire,  have  the  symbolic  significa- 
tion of  the  number  3.     The  name  of  the  divinity  Om  has  the 
same  numerical  meaning.     So,  in  the  Thibetian  language  Mo 
signifies  fire  and  the  number  3d. 

694.  Thus,  the  third  divine  attribute,  or  the  Holy  Ghost,  the 
love  of  God,  and  worship,  have  the  same  symbol :  fire,  which  is 
translated  in  the  language  of  colors  by  red.     A  tradition  preva- 
lent among  all  nations,  states  that  fire  has  created  and  will  des- 
troy the  world ;  for  the  soul,  emanating  from  the  love  of  God, 
must  return  into  his  bosom.     One  of  the  Hebrew  names  of  the 
deity  is  that  of  fire.     In  Indian  mythology,  Siva  is  the  fire  that 
created  the  world,  and  must  consume  it.     And,  finally,  fire 
being  the  symbol  of  regeneration  and  purification  of  the  soul, 
explains  the  custom  of  burning  the  bodies  of  the  dead. 

695.  In  China,  red  color  is  consecrated  to  religion,  and  the 
mourning  worn  by  children  is  hempen  sackcloth  of  a  bright  red. 
Love  always  had  a  red  color  for  the  symbol  of  infancy.     Cupid 
is  a  child,  and,  in  Christian  symbolism,  celestial  love  is  repre- 
sented by  infant  angels.     A  child  was  initiated  into  the  great 
mysteries  at  Eleusis,  and  performed  a  character  in  the  last 


210  STUDY   OF  ART. 

initiation,  which  was  emblematic  of  death.  He  was  called  the 
child  of  the  sanctuary,  and,  to  this  day,  the  boys  of  the  choir 
are  clothed  in  red.  Love  is  a  stranger  to  all  but  innocent  and 
pure  hearts.  "  The  kingdom  of  heaven,"  said  Jesus  Christ,  "  is 
inherited  by  those  who  are  like  little  children."  In  Pagan  anti- 
quity, red  was  the  symbol  of  innocence  and  of  virginity.  The 
mystic  couches  used  in  the  mysteries  of  Eleusis,  bound  round 
with  purple  fillets,  designate  the  virginity  of  Proserpina  when 
she  arrived  at  hell. 

696.  Xenophon  describes  a  Persian  ceremony  testifying  the 
tenet  of  the  divine  triad,  and  its  triple  symbol :  white,  gold  and 
red.     Amidst  an  immense  procession,  are  three  chariots.     The 
first  was  white,  crowned  with  flowers,  v/ith  the  pole  gilt,  an 
offering  to  the  supreme  god.     The  second  chariot,  of  the  same 
color,  and  similarly  decorated,  was  consecrated  to  the  sun.    The 
horses   of   the    third    chariot   were   caparisoned   with    scarlet 
housings,  behind  which  marched  men  bearing  the  sacred  fire. 
It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  examples  demonstrating  that  love, 
fire,  and  red  color,  were  synonymous  in  the  language  of  sym- 
bols.    It  still  remains  in  the  fires  annually  lighted  in  the  pro- 
vinces, on  the  vigil  of  St.  John,  in  memorialism  of  the  baptism 
with  fire. 

697.  The  architecture  of  antique  temples  presents  additional 
applications  of  these  principles.     The  name  and  form  given  to 
the  pyramids,  or  columns  of  fire,  used  as  tombs  by  the  kings  of 
Egypt,  are  not  the  effect  of  fancy  or  chance.    The  obelisk,  sym- 
bol of  Amon,  divine  word,  was  not  placed  as  a  vain  ornament 
at  the  entry  of  the  temples.  (s) 

698.  In  Egypt,  red  color  was  consecrated  to  good  genii,  and 
the  Greek  Jupiter  was  called  Zeus,  life,  heat,  fire ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  Winckleman,  he  was  clothed  in  red.     And,  according  to 
Plutarch,  red  was  consecrated  to  all  divinities.     On  festival 
days,  their  statues  were  covered  with  red,  and  minium  was  put 
on  their  cheeks,  (t) 

699.  Christianity  restored  truth  to  mankind,  and  re-instated 
symbolic  language  in  its  original  purity.    In  the  transfiguration, 


SYMBOLIC   COLORS.  211 

the  countenance  of  our  Lord  became  resplendent  as  the  sun,  and 
his  vesture  shone  like  light.  Such,  in  their  highest  energy,  are 
the  symbols  of  divine  love  and  wisdom.  The  angel  who  rolled 
away  the  stone  from  the  sepulchre,  re-produced  them  in  an  in- 
ferior order.  His  face  shone  like  lightning,  and  his  robe  was 
white  as  snow.  Finally,  in  the  last  degree,  appeared  the  just, 
hi  robes  washed  white  in  the  blood  of  the  Lamb.  The  artists 
of  the  middle  ages  preserved  these  traditions,  and  gave  to 
Christ,  after  the  resurrection,  white  or  red  costume. 

700.  Red  being  established  as  a  symbol  of  the  divinity,  and 
consecrated  to  his  worship,  we  proceed  to  its  application  in  the 
costume  of  pontiffs  and  kings. 

701.  Purple  and  scarlet  colored  the  ephod  and  breast-plate 
of  Aaron.     The  general  signification  of  these  two  colors  indi- 
cates the  love  of  God.     Their  different  gradations  of  color  ma- 
nifest the  varieties  of  this  love. 

702.  Purple  and  hyacinth  are  two  gradations  of  the  same 
color,  which  may  be  easily  confounded,  but  which  have  two 
different  significations.    In  purple,  red  predominates,  and  in  the 
hyacinth,  blue  predominates.     In  the  symbolism  of  compound 
colors,  the  predominating  hue  gives  the  general  signification, 
and  the  subordinate  hue  the  modified  meaning.     Consequently, 
purple  indicates  the  love  of  truth,  and  hyacinth,  the  truth  of 
love. 

703.  At  Hieropolis,  none  but  the  sovereign  pontiff  had  the 
right  to  wear  a  purple  robe.     The  priests  were  clothed  in  white. 
In  the  mysteries  of  Eleusis,  the  priests  wore  long  robes  of 
purple.     The  purple  mantle  of  kings  was  the  emblem  of  the 
power  of  God,  or  right  divine. 

704.  According  to  Josephus,  the  costume  of  the  kings  of 
Egypt  was  of  a  purple  color.     It  was  the  same  among  the  an- 
cient Greeks ;  and  the  appropriation  of  this  color  to  royalty  was 
universal  among  the  people  of  antiquity. 

705.  The  priests  and  priestesses  of  Eleusis  pronounced  their 
imprecations  against  Alcibiades,  upstanding,  and  turning  to  the 


212  STUDY   OF   ART. 

west,  and  shaking  their  purple  robes.  In  sacrificing  to  the 
Eumenides,  it  was  obligatory  to  wear  robes  of  this  color. 
Wrought  wool,  tinted  purple,  was  likewise  used  in  sacrifices 
preparatory  to  the  mysteries.  The  couches  of  the  initiated, 
during  the  celebration  of  the  festival  of  Ceres,  were  bound 
round  by  narrow  fillets  of  the  same  color.  Homer  gives  to  the 
dead,  the  epithet  purpurea.  Artimedorus  says,  that  purple 
color  is  assigned  to  death,  and  that  "  Those  who  live  piously, 
ought,  in  Elysium,  to  live  in  fields  enameled  with  purple  roses." 
The  ancients  strewed  on  the  tombs  flowers  of  purple  and  saffron. 
All  these  customs  were  allegorical  and  related  to  the  future 
life ;  for  the  initiated  were  considered  as  having  passed  through 
the  state  of  death,  whence  arose  the  conformity  of  several  cere- 
monies of  initiation  with  those  which  were  used  in  sepulchres 
and  funereal  sacrifices. 

OF   BLUE   AS    A    CONSECRATED    LANGUAGE. 

706.  In  the  Bible  the  air  is  the  symbol  of  the  Holy  Spirit — 
of  the  Divine  truth  which  enlightens   mankind.     The  miracle 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  when  the  Apostles  "  were  all  filled 
with  the   Holy  Ghost,  describes  it  as  a  mighty  rushing  wind, 
with  cloven  tongues  like  as  of  fire." 

707.  The  Holy  Ghost  is  God  in  us  as  love  and  truth.    These 
two  attributes  re-united  had  the   dove  for  a  symbol.     When 
Jesus     was    baptized,    John    saw    the     Spirit    of    God    de- 
scending on  him  as  a  dove.     The  symbol  of  the   Spirit  is  Air, 
even  so  is  its   color,  azure   or  celestial   blue.      In    Christian 
theology,  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father  and  the  Son. 
God  is  love,  Christ  is  truth.    Their  symbols  are  red  and  azure, 
the  Holy  Ghost  proceeding  from  these  two  was  represented  by 
red  and  blue. 

708.  Antiquity  typified  this  dogma  by  the  ethereal  fire.     In 
Hindoostan  is  found  the  god  of  fire,  Agni,   with  two  faces, 
symbols  of  the  fire  terrestrial  and  the  fire  celestial.    He  rides  on 
a  ram  of  azure  color,  with  red  horns.     We  find  Jupiter  Ammon 


SYMBOLIC   COLORS.  213 

with  similar  attributes,  represented  of  a  blue  color  with  ram's 
horns. 

709.  In  oriental  languages  the  word  azur  signifies  fire,  and  in 
blazonry  it  designates  blue  color.     Jupiter  Axur  explains  this 
double  signification.   According  to  the  Greeks,  says  St.  Clement, 
the  ethereal  fire  is  their  god  Zeus.     He  is  made  the  supreme 
god  because  of  his  igneous  nature.     The  ethereal  fire,  or  red 
and  blue  reunited,  typify  the  identification  of  love  and  wisdom 
in  the  father  of  gods  and  men.     This  symbol  is  represented  and 
developed  on  Christian  monuments  by  the  violet  color. 

710.  In  cosmogonies,  divine  wisdom  creates  the  world.     God, 
the  creator,  is  always  colored  blue.     Vischnou,  according  to 
the  sacred  books  of  Hindoostan,  was  born  of  a  blue  color. 

711.  In  Egypt,  the  supreme  god,  Cneph,  was  painted  blue. 
In  Greece,  blue  is  the  color  of  Jupiter.     In  China,  Heaven  is 
the  supreme  god,  and  in  Christian  symbolism,  the  azured  vault 
is  the  mantle  which  veils  divinity. 

712.  Identical  symbols  reappear  in  Egypt.     Amon  is  the 
divine  word,  the  new  sun,  the  sun  of  spring.     He  enters  the 
golden  circle  of  the  year  by  appearing  in  the  sign  Aries.    Victor 
over  the  darkness  of  the  inferior  hemisphere,  he  expands  his 
heat  and  light  upon  the  earth.    His  image  according  to  Eusebius, 
was  that  of  a  man  sitting,  of  an  azure  color,  with  a  ram's  head. 
He  is  thus  represented  on  Egyptian  paintings. 

713.  Symbolism  distinguishes  three  shades  of  blue  :    one, 
which  emanates  from  red,  another  from  white,  and  a  third  allied 
to  black.     The  blue  emanated  from  red,  represents  the  ethereal 
fire,  and  signifies  the  celestial  love  of  truth.     In  the  mysteries, 
it  relates  to  the  baptism  by  fire.     Blue  emanated  from  white, 
indicates  the  truth  of  faith.     It  relates  to  the  living  waters  of 
the  Bible,  or  to  the  baptism  of  the  spirit.     The  blue  allied  to 
black  conducts  us  back  to  cosmogony,  to  the  spirit  of  God 
moving  on  chaos,  and  relates  to  natural  baptism. 

714.  These  three  aspects  of  the  same  color  correspond  to  the 
three  principal  degrees  of  ancient  initiation,  and  to  the  triple 
baptism  of  Christianity.     St,  Jonn  said  :  "  I  baptize  with  water, 


214:  STUDY  OF  ART. 

but  He  who  cometh  after  me  is  mightier  than  I :  He  will  bap- 
tize you  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  fire."  In  painting,  these 
three  degrees  are  particularized  by  red,  blue,  and  green. 
Green,  black,  and  deep  blue,  indicate  the  world  born  from  the 
depth  of  the  primitive  waters,  and  the  first  degree  of  initiation. 
Azure  represents  regeneration,  or  the  spiritual  form  of  man, 
and  red  the  sanctification. 

715.  When  Vischnou,  the  supreme  god  of  the  Indians,  re- 
presents the  last  degree  of  regeneration,  he  is  of  a  deep  blue, 
and  verditer  color.     Krischna,  as  the  incarnation  of  truth  di- 
vine, is  colored  azure  ;  but  abased  to  humanity,  he  is  subjected 
to  the  temptations  of  evil,  and  Indian  symbolism  consecrates 
deep  blue  and  black  to  him. 

716.  Plutarch  states  Osiris  to  be  of  a  black  color,  because 
water  blackens  substances  which  it  saturates.     From  this,  the 
primitive  idea    of  God  agitating  chaos  is  evident.     The  statue 
of  Saturn,  in  his  temple,  was  of  black  stone.     His  priests  were 
Ethiopians,  Abyssinians,  or  from  other  black  nations.     They 
wore  blue  vestments  and  rings  of  iron.    When  the  king  entered 
this  temple,  his  suite  wore  blue  or  black. 

717.  The  opposition  of  these  two  colors  represents  the  anta- 
gonism of  life  and  death  in  the  spiritual  and  material  states, 
manifested  in  the  age  of  which  Saturn  is  the  symbol. 

718.  Azure,  in  its  absolute   signification,   represents   truth 
divine.     It  was  the  symbol  of  divine  eternity,  and  of  human 
immortality,  and,  by  natural  consequence,  became  a  mortuary 
color.     In  China,  blue  is  appropriated  to  the  dead,  and  red  to 
the  living.     Red  represents  fire  and  vivifying  heat.     Blue  is 
the  symbol  of  the  soul  after  death.     In  Christian  symbolism, 
azure  is  similar.     In  a  manuscript  of  the  tenth  century,  Jesus, 
represented  in  the  tomb,  is  bound  by  blue  fillets ;  his  coun- 
tenance is  blue,  the  sepulchre  is  red.     There  are  two  attending 
angels ;  the  one  on  the  right  has  a  blue  aureole  and  violet 
mantle,  symbols  of  the  passion,  and  of  the  death  of  Christ.    The 
angel  on  the  left  has  a  purple,  mantle,  symbol  of  the  triumph 
of  love  and  of  revelation.     After  the  death  of  Christ,  the  Virgin 


SYMBOLIC  COLORS.  215 

is  often  represented  in  blue  vestures.  The  priest  also  wears 
blue  during  the  celebration  of  the  sacred  mysteries  of  Lent,  and, 
at  the  approach  of  the  holy  week,  the  images  of  Christ  are 
veiled  in  blue.  In  these  ceremonies,  we  see  the  first  degree  of 
materialization  :  the  symbol  of  divine  eternity  and  of  human 
immortality  becomes  the  emblem  of  carnal  death. 

719.  Throughout  the  Levant,  blue  is  considered  a  mortuary 
color.     Nothing  but  blue  is  worn  as  mourning.     No  one  dares 
to  appear  before  royalty  in  this  sad  livery.     In  these  customs, 
the  symbol  is  completely  materialized. 

720.  In  China,  green  typifies  the  East,  the  spring,  a  tree, 
and  charity.     In  Christianity,  green  is  the  symbol  of  regenera- 
tion in  action,  that  is,  charity. 

721.  Christian  painters  of  the  middle  ages,  painted  the  cross 
of  a  green  color,  symbol  of  regeneration,  of  charity,  of  hope. 
Sometimes,  it  was  bordered  with  a  red  band.     The  friend  of 
Christ,  the  Christian  initiator,  the  sacred  scribe,  St.  John,  is 
almost  always  robed  in  green.     Tradition  consecrates  this  color 
to  the  Virgin  and  the  infant  Jesus,  symbolizing  the  first  degree 
of  regeneration.     The  color  of  the  vestments  of  the  Messiah,  at 
different  epochs  of  his  life,  form  a  sacred  drama,  whence  we 
may  understand  the  symbolism  of  colors. 

722.  Among  the  Arabs,  green  had  the  same  signification. 
It  became  the  symbol  of  initiation  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
supreme  God  revealed  in  the  Koran. 

723.  Green,  like  other  colors,  had  a  nefarious  signification. 
In  opposition,  it  signified  moral  degradation  and  folly.    Sweden- 
borg  gives  green  eyes  to  fools  in  hell.     A  window  in  Chartres 
cathedral  represents  the  temptation  of  Christ,  and  Satan  with 
green  eyes  and  skin.     In  symbolism,  the  eye  signifies  the  un- 
derstanding, intellectual  light ;  and  man  can  turn  it  towards  good 
or  towards  evil.     Satan  and  Minerva,  Folly  and  Wisdom,  were 
represented  with  green  eyes.    On  the  symbolism  of  green  color, 
India  affords  the  most  ancient  traditions. 

724.  Rose  color  derives  its  signification  from  red  and  white  : 


216  STUDY   OF   ART. 

red  is  the  symbol  of  divine  love,  and  white  of  divine  wisdom. 
The  earliest  traditions  of  Christianity  give  the  same  significa- 
tion to  the  rose  that  it  had  in  antiquity.  In  the  seventh  century, 
according  to  Bede,  the  tomb  of  Jesus  Christ  was  painted  of  an 
intermingled  color,  white  and  red.  The  white  rose  became  the 
emblem  of  monastic  wisdom,  and  of  renunciation  of  the  world. 
In  the  arms  of  religious  societies,  a  crown  is  placed,  composed 
of  branches  of  the  white  rose,  with  its  leaves,  thorns,  and  flowers, 
denoting  the  chastity  which  is  preserved  amidst  the  thorns  and 
mortifications  of  life.  A  picture  of  the  school  of  Corregio  is  im- 
pressed with  this  antique  symbol.  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  pre- 
sents to  Jesus  red  and  white  roses,  produced  in  January.  Janus 
presides  over  January,  and  the  heavenly  door-keeper  opens  the 
first  degree  of  the  mysteries.  In  the  month  of  January,  the  sun 
commences  his  victorious  career,  and  overcomes  cold  and  dark- 
ness, emblems  of  evil  and  error.  The  same  symbolic  idea  ap- 
pears in  Rose-Sunday,  when  the  Pope  blesses  a  golden  rose, 
which  is  carried  in  procession  through  Rome,  "  in  order,"  say 
the  mystics,  t(  to  represent  the  joy  of  day,  which  shines  like  a 
rose  amidst  the  thorns  of  Lent." 

725.  Scarlet  was  composed  of  red  and  white  with  a  tint  of 
yellow.     It  was  a  symbol  of  spiritual  love ;  of  the  love  of  the 
divine  word.     The  vestments  of  Aaron,  and  the  Hebrew  priests, 
for  the  service  of  the  sanctuary,  were  purple,  scarlet,  and  hya- 
cinth.    In  all  the  ornaments  of  the  priest,  purple  was  the  pre- 
dominant color,  and  he  alone  was  permitted  to  wear  the  hyacinth 
tunic. 

726.  Violet  designates  the  truth  of  love,  and  the  love  of 
truth.     It  will  also  comprise  the  sense  of  hyacinth,  the  union  of 
goodness  and  truth,   of  love  and  of  wisdom.      On   symbolic 
medieval  monuments,  Jesus  Christ  wears  a  violet  robe  during 
the  passion :  this  color  representing  the  complete  identification 
of  the  Father  and  the  Son.     Jesus,  as  a  type  of  humanity,  wears 
a  red  robe  and  a  blue  mantle.     Reunited  with  the  deity,  he  is. 


SYMBOLIC  COLORS.  217 

invested  with  a  violet  robe.  After  his  glorification,  he  appears 
in  red  and  white,  symbols  of  Jehovah.  To  the  Holy  Ghost,  the 
symbol  of  violet  is  never  given. 

I'll.  Violet  was  assigned  to  martyrs,  because,  in  imitation  of 
their  master,  they  bore  the  ignominy  of  the  cross.  This  color 
was  adopted  as  mourning  by  people  of  rank,  flattery  decreeing 
them  the  martyr's  palm.  Kings  and  cardinals  wear  violet  as 
mourning.  On  medieval  illuminations,  it  is  sometimes  seen  as 
a  pall.  In  Egyptian  tombs,  amulets  are  found  of  this  color. 

728.  Orange,  or  saffron,  composed  of  yellow  and  red,  had, 
in  the  highest  antiquity,  the  signification  of  the  revelation  of 
divine  love.     The  Messiah  is  named  the  East.     The  Grecian 
aurora  had  a  saffron-colored  veil.     In  Christianity,  saffron  and 
orange  color  were  the  symbols  of  God  filling  the  heart,  and  en- 
lightening the  spirit  of  the  faithful. 

729.  In  Christian  usage,  the  mixture  of  white,  black  and 
grey  was  the  emblem  of  terrestrial  death,  and  spiritual  immor- 
tality.    In  the  religious  paintings  of  the  middle  ages,  grey  re- 
presents the  resurrection  from  the  dead. 

730.  This  limited  abstract  of  De  Portal's  work  on  symbolic 
colors,  is  sufficient  to  show  their  relation  to  art,  and  the  signi- 
fication given  to  each  color,   accounts  for  the  imperfect  de- 
velopment of  the  art  of  painting  among  the  nations  of  anti- 
quity. 

10 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

SYMBOLIC    EMBLEMS. 

731.  IN  Egyptian  mythology,  the  infinite  height  and  depth 
of  the  divine  mind  are  represented  by  a  hawk,  because  that 
bird,  in  her  flight,  soars  perpendicularly  up,  and  drops  perpen- 
dicularly down.     The  Egyptians  believed  in  the  immortality  of 
the  soul.      The  separate  spirit  was  denoted  in  hieroglyphics  by 
a  hawk  having  a  human  head. 

732.  The  Egyptian  triad  was  represented  by  a  globe,  a  ser- 
pent and  a  wing.     The  globe  is  an  emblem  of  God,  for  his  cen- 
tre is  everywhere,  and  his  circumference  immeasurable.     The 
serpent  designates  eternity,  and  likewise  wisdom.     The  wing  is 
the  symbol  of  air,  or  the  spirit.     On  a  monument  of  Thebes, 
engraved  and  -colored  in  the  description  of  Egypt  (Tom.  II., 
PL  34,  French  government  work,)  the  globe  is  red,  the  two 
serpents  are  golden,  and  the  wings  are  red  and  azured.     The 
interval  between  the  two  serpents  is  filled  by  a  green  tint. 
The  red  is  the  symbol  of  love  divine.     The  gold  or  yellow,  in- 
dicates the  Word  revelation ;  the  azure,  the  air,  divine  breath. 

733.  The  IBIS  was  worshiped   by  the   ancient   Egyptians. 
They  placed  it  in  the  sanctuary  of  their  temples ;  it  was  allowed 
to  stray  freely  and  unharmed  about  their  cities ;  they  embalmed 
it  with  care  equal  to  that  bestowed  on  their  dearest  relatives ; 
they  attributed  to  it  a  virgin  purity,  and  an  inviolable  attach- 
ment to  their  country,  of  which  it  was  an  emblem.     In  fine, 
they  felt  assured,  that  the  gods  assumed  the  shape  of  the  ibis 
whenever  they  found  it  necessary  to  visit  the  earth. 


SYMBOLIC  EMBLEMS.  219 

734.  Herodotus  describes  the  most  common  species  of  this 
bird  as  having  the  head  and  neck  bare,  the  plumage,  with  some 
exceptions,  white.      By  others,  it  is  represented  as  entirely 
black,  with  feet  like  the  crane,  and  crooked  beak.     The  paint- 
ings at  Herculaneum,  and  the  Palestrine  Mosaic,  both  present 
a  number  of  figures  of  the  ibis,  all  agreeing  in  the  essential 
characteristics  assigned  by  the  ancients ;  to  which  may  be  added 
a  medal  in  bronze,  and  another  in  silver  of  the  Emperor  Had- 
rian.    According  to  Bruce,  this  bird  is  still  found  upon  the 
banks  of  the  Nile. 

735.  The  SCARABEUS  was  held  in  great  veneration  by  the 
Egyptians.      Of  this  insect  there  were  three  varieties.     The 
one  most  celebrated  and  the  only  one  found  represented  on 
ancient  monuments,  is  the  Scarabeus  Sacri  of  the  naturalists. 
This  is  perceived  in  the  Isiac  table,  and  is  frequent  among  hie- 
roglyphics :  it  was  the  symbol  of  immortality.     With  the  head 
of  a  ram  or  a  hawk  it  was  an  emblem  of  the  sun.     Another 
species  was  consecrated  to  Isis,  and  indicated  the  moon,  its  two 
horns  resembling  the  crescent  of  that  planet.     It  was  customary 
with  the  Egyptians  to  give  the  shape  of  the  scarabeus  to  their 
amulets  or  rings. 

736.  The  CROCODILE  is  found  represented  on  ancient  coins, 
and  according  to  M.  Zoega  should  always  be  considered  as  em- 
blematical of  the  Nile.     It  is  also  found  on  a  fine  mosaic  dis- 
covered at  Palestina ;  upon  the  base  of  the  statue  of  the  Nile 
in  Museo  Pio  Clementine,  and  upon  many  other  antique  monu- 
ments.     On  works  not  wrought  in  Egypt,  the   crocodile   is 
always  to  be  understood  as  the  symbol  or  emblem  of  that  coun- 
try.    A  crocodile  chained  to  a  palm  tree  represents  the  subju- 
gation of  Egypt.      The    crocodile    was    worshiped   in   many 
Egyptian  cities ;  particularly  at  Thebes,  and  at  Arsinoe,  hence 
its  name,  Crocodilopolis. 

737.  The  PHCENIX,  the  bird  so  famous  in  antiquity,  is  by 
moderns  considered  fabulous.     The  ancients  speak  of  this  bird 
as  unique,  and  their  artists  represent  it  as  the  size  of  an  eagle, 
its  head  finely  crested  with  a  beautiful  plumage,  its  neck  covered 


220  STUDY   OF  ART. 

with  feathers  of  a  golden  color,  and  the  rest  of  it  purple,  with 
the  exception  of  the  tail  which  is  white,  and  eyes  extremely 
sparkling  like  stars.  The  tradition  is,  that  it  lives  in  the  wil- 
derness, and  attains  the  age  of  five  or  six  hundred  years,  and 
when  thus  advanced  in  age,  builds  itself  a  pile  of  sweet  wood 
and  aromatic  gums,  and  firing  it  by  the  wafting  of  its  wings, 
thus  destroys  itself.  From  its  ashes  arises  a  worm,  which  in 
time,  grows  up  to  be  a  phoenix. 

738.  In  the  sixth  book  of  the  annals  of  Tacitus,  it  is  stated, 
that  in  the  year  787  of  Rome,  the  phoenix  revisited  Egypt, 
which  created  much  speculation  among  the  learned.     The  ac- 
counts of  its  longevity  vary  from  five  hundred  to  one  thousand 
five  hundred  years.     It  was  considered  as  sacred  to  the  sun. 

739.  Tradition  has  assigned  the  several  eras  at  which  the 
phoenix  appeared.     The  first  it  informs  us  was  in  the  reign  of 
Sesostris ;  the  second  in  that  of  Amasis ;  and  the  third  at  that 
period  when  Ptolemy  (the  third  of  th*.   Macedonian  race)  was 
seated  on  the  throne  of  Egypt.     "When  ta  these  circumstances 
are  added  the  brilliant  appearance  of  the  phoenix,  and  the  tale 
that  it  makes  frequent  excursions  with  a  load  on  its  back,  and 
that  when,  by  having  made  the  experiment,  through  a  long 
tract  of  air,  gaining  sufficient  confidence  in  its  own  vigor,  it  flies 
with  the  body  of  its  progenitor  to  the  altar  of  the  sun,  in  order 
that  it  may  there  be  consumed,  some  key  will  be  afforded  to  the 
frequent  use  made  by  artists  of  this  curious  subject,  as  also  to 
the  idea  advanced  by  antiquarians,  that  the  sages  of  Egypt  en- 
veloped under  this  allegory  the  philosophy  of  the  comets. 

740.  When  an  Egyptian  monarch  is  represented  holding  a 
phoenix  in  his  hand,  it  is  emblematic  of  his  long  absence  from 
Egypt  in  a  foreign  land. 

741.  A  REED  is  the  Egyptian  emblem  of  royalty 

742.  The  FLAGELLUM  and  CROOK  of  Orisiris,  the  emblems 
of  majesty  and  dominion. 

743.  The  EYE  of  Osiris  was  one  of  the  most  important  em- 
blems.    It  was  placed  on  boats,  on  coffins,  and  other  conspicu- 


SYMBOLIC   EMBLEMS.  221 

ous  positions,  as  if  to  indicate  the  all-seeing  presence  of  the 
divinity. 

744.  The  LION  was  consecrated  to  Cybele,  and  we  find  it 
sculptured  upon  many  monuments  erected  to  that  mysterious 
deity.     Sometimes  she  is  borne  upon  a  lion ;  at  others,  they 
draw  her  car,  and  occasionally  are  found  standing  by  the  throne 
on  which  she  is  seated.     The  poets  are  profuse  in  their  admira- 
tion of  the  magnanimity  and  clemency  of  this  beast,  which  has 
by  distinction  acquired  the  title  of  royal;  hence  many  princes 
have  been  represented  symbolically  by  the  figure  of  a  lion.     In 
the  sacred  writings  of  the  Hebrews,  as  well  as  in  the  mystic 
language  of  the  ancient  oracles,  this  kind  of  representation  is 
maintained,  since  the  lion  has  always  been  considered  the  em- 
blem of  sovereign  power  and  sway. 

745.  The  coins  and  medals  of  the  Roman  emperors   and 
others  more  ancient,  abound  with  representations  of  this  animal ; 
and  occasionally  we  find  it  used  as  a  symbol  of  consecration  or 
of  eternity  with  the  legend  of  Memoriae  JEternae.      Several 
princes  both  ancient  and  modern,  have  in  artistic  representa- 
tions of  themselves,  required  the  artist  to  introduce  the  skin  of 
the  lion's  head  drawn  over  their  own  helmets,  in  imitation  of 
some  of  the  figures  of  Hercules. 

746.  There  remain  to  us  many  beautifully  executed  antique 
lions.     Among  the  finest  is  that  placed  before  the  Barberini 
Palace  ;  another  very  fine  specimen  is  to  be  found  in  the  Villa 
Medicis ;  a  third  at  Dresden.     The  two  lions  of  Venice,  placed 
at  the  entry  of  the  Arsenal,  are  particularly  celebrated.    These 
were  brought  from  Athens  in  the  year  1687. 

747.  The  DRAGON  was  a  fabulous  animal  or  reptile,  sup- 
posed to  be  a  species  of  winged  serpent,  that  was  held  in  divine 
estimation  by  some  of  the  earliest  nations  of  antiquity,  and  used 
by  the  Romans  for  the  ensign  of  a  company,  as  the  eagle  was 
of  a  regiment.     The  belief  in  this  fabulous  reptile  was  very 
general  among  the  ancients,  and  their  representations  and  de- 
scriptions are  abundantly  alarming.     JElian  gives  a  crest  and 
beard  to  the  male  dragon ;  and  others  describe  it  as  having  a 


222  STUDY   OF   ART. 

large  mouth  and  throat,  teeth  like  a  wild  boar,  and  a  long  body 
covered  with  scales.  Pliny  relates  that  the  dragons  of  Ethiopia 
traversed  the  seas  in  shoals,  of  four  or  five  each,  holding  their 
heads  above  the  surface  of  the  waves. 

748.  These  dreadful  animals,  as  they  were  believed  to  be, 
were  objects  of  worship  from  fear.     In  Epirus  they  kept  sev- 
eral dragons  that  were  attended  by  a  virgin,  and  from  his  com- 
placency or  antipathy,  and  his  manner  of  taking  his  food,  they 
judged  whether  they  should  have  a  fruitful  or  a  sterile  season. 
^Elian  relates  abundant  anecdotes  of  the  credulity  of  the  people 
of  those  ages  concerning  dragons,  flying  serpents,  and  such  like 
fabulous  monsters. 

749.  Representations  of  dragons  are  often  found  on  ancient 
monuments.     They  are  among  the  attributes  of  JEsculapius, 
and  of  Hygeia ;  they  are  attached  to  the  cars  of  Ceres  and  of 
Media,  they  were  the  guardians  of  the  Hesperian  apples.     In 
the  fabulous  histories  of  the  chivalresque  ages,  the  dragon  is 
also  mentioned,  particularly  the  one  that  was  said  to  have  been 
combatted  by  the  patron  saint  of  England,  St.  George. 

750.  It  was  the  custom  among  the  Romans  for  an  officer 
called  the  draconarius  to  carry  the  dragon  as  an  ensign  to  every 
cohort.     On  Trajan's  column  it  appears  as  a  Dacian  ensign. 
The  dragon  or  serpent  represented  on  a  shield,  which  was 
found  on  a  column  upon  the  tomb  of  Epaminondas,  indicated 
that  he  was  descended  from  the  Spartans ;  that  is,  from  those 
who  sprung  up  from  the  dragons'  teeth  sown  by  Cadmus.    The 
dragon  upon  the  shield  of  Menelaus,  in  a  picture  of  Polygnotus 
at  Delphi,  designated  the  serpent,  which  during  the  sacrifice  at 
Aulis,  came  out  from  under  the  altar. 

751.  The  great  Chinese  dragon  so  conspicuous  in  every  pub- 
lic and  private  edifice,  was  the  symbolical  serpent  of  ancient 
mythology  under  a  more  fanciful  and  poetical  form.     It  differs 
from  the   dragon  of  antiquity  by  having  legs  with  feet  armed 
with  claws  like  those  of  birds.     It  was  the  general  banner  of 
the  empire,  and  indicated  every  thing  that  was  sacred  in  it.     It 
was  not  only  the  stamp  and  symbol  of  royalty,  but  is  sculptured 


SYMBOLIC    EMBLEMS. 

in  all  the  temples,  blazoned  on  the  furniture  of  the  houses,  and 
interwoven  with  the  vestments  of  the  chief  nobility.  The  em- 
peror bears  a  dragon  on  his  armorial  device,  and  the  same 
figure  is  engraved  on  his  sceptre  and  diadem,  as  well  as  on  all 
the  vases  in  the  imperial  palace.  The  superstition  of  Japan 
was  in  every  respect  similar  to  that  of  China.  The  dragon  was 
held  in  equal  veneration  in  both  countries. 

752.  The  figures  of  the  ancient  deities  of  Pagan  mythology, 
have  always  some  distinctive  attribute  as  emblematic  of  their 
respective  offices  and  qualities. 

753.  Saturn  had  for  attributes,  a  serpent  with  his  tail  in  his 
mouth,  expressive  of  eternity,  and  a  scythe  of  which  he  was  the 
reputed  inventor;  and  as  being  the  destroyer  of  all   things. 
Jupiter  had  an  eagle  and  thunderbolts.     Neptune  a  trident — a 
sceptre  with  three  points — and  marine  productions.     Pluto  a 
sceptre,  sometimes  with  two  points,  then  called  a  bident,  and  a 
crown  of  iron.     Mars,  a  spear.     Mercury,  a  caduceus.     Apollo, 
a  laurel  and  bow.     Vulcan,  a  sledge-hammer.      Cybele  and 
Rhea,  a  crown  of  turrets.     Juno,  a  crown  and  peacock.     Am- 
phitrite,  a  shell.     Minerva,  the  aegis.     Venus  is  known  by  the 
presence  of  Cupid,  by  a  mirror,  and  when  as  Victrix,  with  the 
apple  adjudged  by  Paris.     Hercules  is  represented  with  a  club, 
and  also  a  lion's  skin.     Mornus,  with  a  mask.     The  Fates,  or 
Destinies,  with  a  distaff.     Justice,  with  a  balance  and  a  pair  of 
scales.     Liberty,  with  a  cap  on  the  summit  of  a  lance.     For- 
tune, with  a  rudder.     Clemency  and  Peace  both  bear  an  olive- 
branch.     These  attributes,  if  rightly  given,  designate  the  char- 
acter represented.     If  they  are  multiplied  and  misapplied,  the 
work  is  wanting  in  truth,  an  indispensable  requisite  of  a  good 
composition. 

754.  The  PALM  BRANCH  is  found  engraved  upon  a  great 
number  of  medallions  and  other  monuments  of  art.     It  is  some- 
times the  symbol  of  victory,  because  on  triumphal  days  the  con-  i\ 
queror,  besides  his  crown,  bore  also  a  palm  branch.     From  its 
native  strength  it  was  considered  an  emblem  of  the  stability  of 
empire,  and  also  expressed  abundance  and  felicity.     It  is  placed 


224  STUDY  OF  ART. 

in  the  hands  of  Jupiter,  of  Juno,  of  Hercules,  of  Mars,  of  Venus, 
of  Mercury,  and  above  all,  of  Minerva.  The  Romans  gave  it 
to  personifications  of  Liberty,  Fortune  and  Peace,  as  well  as  to 
the  representations  of  their  Emperors. 

755.  Jupiter  was  crowned  with  laurel ;  Neptune  with  marine 
plants ;  Minerva  with  olive  branches ;  Venus  with  roses ;  Sa- 
turn with  fresh  figs,  vine  branches  and  grapes;    Castor  and 
Pollux  with  reeds.     At  definite  periods  every  year,  the  Steph- 
anores,  or  crown-bearers,  in  the  presence  of  the  people,  placed 
these  crowns    upon   the  pictures  and   statues  that  filled  the 
heathen  temples. 

756.  The  EGG  has  from  time  immemorial  been  the  symbol 
of  the  being  who  created  all  things,  and  hath  all  things  within 
himself.     It  is  found  on  all  the  statues  of  Mithras,  upon  his 
altars  and  many  ancient  votive  hands  of  bronze.     Montfaucon 
has  given  the  representation  of  a  statue  of  Isis,  between  the 
horns  of  which  is  placed  an  egg.     The  Egyptians  held  it  in 
profound  veneration,  and  in  conjunction  with  the  serpent,  con- 
sidered it  as  representing  the  mystery  of  creation,  or  the  mun- 
dane globe, — or,  time  and  the  serpent  of  eternity.     On  several 
of  the  engraved  gems  published  by  Stosch,  are  sculptured  two 
serpents,  raised  upon  their  tails,  with  the  mystic  egg  between 
them.     From  the  Egyptians  the  egg  crept  into  the  architectural 
sculpture  of  Greece,  and  forms  one  of  their  finest  ornaments. 

757.  It  was  a  prevailing  custom  of  the  ancients  to  consecrate 
or  dedicate  various  parts  of  the  human  body.     Such  votive 
members  are  found  in  all  the  collections  of  antiquities.     There 
are  several  in  the  Elgin  Gallery  and  in  the  British  Museum. 
Montfaucon  describes   two   such   ears   upon   which  he  found 
remains  of  gilding.     They  were,  perhaps,  dedicated  or  present- 
ed to  the  temple  of  some  deity  on  the  recovery  of  deafness. 

758.  The  ancients  attributed  the  seats  of  various  virtues  to 
different  parts  of  the  human  body.     The  forehead  and  face  were 
assigned  to  modesty,  or  pudicity ;  the  right  hand  to  good  faith  ; 
the  knees  to  compassion ;  the  ear  to  memory.     It  was  custo- 
mary with  them,  as  a  formulary,  to  touch  the   ear  to  avoid 


SYMBOLIC   EMBLEMS.  225 

any  expected  ill,  or  to  reveal  a  fact  to  liis  memory.  It  was 
for  this  that  they  touched  the  tip  of  the  ear  of  those  who 
were  called  to  bear  witness.  It  was  also  a  mark  of  tenderness 
from  children  to  their  parents,  lovers  to  their  mistresses,  to  kiss 
and  touch  their  ears.  There  are  numerous  passages  in  ancient 
writers,  and  sculptures  on  precious  stones,  in  corroboration  of 
the  custom.  Spon  has  figured  two  onyxes,  of  which  one  repre- 
sents a  hand  holding  an  ear,  inscribed  with  the  Greek  word, 
remember  ;  and  the  other,  a  similar  representation  with  a  Greek 
inscription,  intimating,  "  Remember  thy  good  fortune." 

759.  The  hand,  among  the  ancients,  was  a  symbol  of  strength. 
It  was  also  made  a  votive  offering.     The  authors  of  the  anti- 
quities of  Herculaneum  have  published  a  votive  hand,  found 
in  1746,  among  the  ruins  of  Resina.    Its  antiquity  is  considered 
unquestionable,  and  of  the  time  of  Titus.     It  is  a  good  hand 
with  two  of  the  fingers  closed.     Upon  some  antique  hands,  in- 
scriptions are  found  relative  to  their  dedication.     One  described 
by  Montfaucon,  is  inscribed,    "  Cecropius  voti   compos   votum 
solvit" 

760.  We  find  in  pictures  certain  attributes  or  emblems  wThich 
are  of  general  application,  others  are  appropriate  to  particular 
saints. 

761.  The   GLORY,  NIMBUS,  or  Aureole,  the  Christian  attri- 
bute of  sanctity,  and  used  generally  to  distinguish  all  holy  per- 
sonages, is  of  pagan  origin.     It  expressed  the  luminous  nebula, 
supposed  to  emanate  from,  and  surround  the  Divine  Essence, 
which  stood  a  shade  in  the  midst  of  its  own  brightness. 

762.  Considered  in  the  East,  as  the  attribute  of  power  only, 
whether  good  or  evil,  we  find  wherever  early  art  was  developed 
under  Byzantine  influences,  the  nimbus  thus  applied.     It  was 
for  a  long  time  avoided  in  the  Christian  representations,  as 
being  appropriated  by  false  gods  or  heathen  pride. 

763.  The  earliest  and  most  universal  of  the  Christian  em- 
blems, was  the  FISH,  party  as  the  symbol  of  water  and  the  rite 
of  baptism,  and  also  because  the  seven  Greek  letters  which 
express  the  word  Fish,  form  the  anagram  of  the  name  of  Jesus 

10* 


226  STUDY   OF   ART. 

Christ.  In  this  sense,  we  find  the  fish  as  a  general  symbol  of 
the  Christian  faith  upon  the  sarcophagi  of  the  early  Christians ; 
on  the  tombs  of  the  martyrs  in  the  catacombs  ;  on  rings,  coin's, 
lamps,  and  other  utensils ;  and  as  an  ornament  in  early  Chris- 
tian architecture.  Among  the  pagans,  a  dolphin  had  a  sacred 
significance. 

764.  The  passage  in  the  Gospel,  "  Follow  me,  and  I  will 
make  you  fishers  of  men,"  is  supposed  to  have  originated  the 
use  of   this  symbol,  and  I  may  observe  here,  that  the  fish 
placed  in  the  hands  of  St.  Peter  has  probably  a  double  or 
treble    signification;    alluding  to  his   former  occupation  as  a 
fisherman,  his  conversion  to  Christianity,  and  his  vocation  as 
a  Christian  apostle,  *.  e.,  a  fisher  of  men,  in  the  sense  used  by 
Christ ;  and  in  the  same  sense  we  find  it  given  as  an  attribute 
to  the  bishops,  who  were  famous  for  converting  and  baptizing. 

765.  About  the  tenth  century  the  Fish  disappeared,  and  the 
CROSS,  symbol  of  our  redemption,  since  the  Apostolic  times, 
became  the  sole  and  universal  emblem  of  the  Christian  faith. 
The  cross  placed  in  the  hand  of  a  saint,  is  usually  the  Latin 
cross,  the  form  ascribed  to  the  cross  on  which  our  Savior  suf- 
fered:   crosses  are  used  as  emblems    or  ornaments,  but  still 
having  the  same  signification ;  as  the  Greek  cross,  in  which  the 
arms  are  all  of  the  same  length;  the  transverse  cross,  on  which 
St.  Andrew  is  supposed  to  have  suffered  in  this  form.     The 
Egyptian  cross  is  sometimes  placed  in  the  hands  of  St.  Philip 
the   apostle,  and  it  was  also  the  form  of  the  crutch  of   St. 
Anthony  and  embroidered  on  his  cape  or  robe;  hence  it  is 
called  St.  Anthony's  cross.     There  is  also  the  Maltese  cross, 
and  various  ornamental  crosses.     The  double  cross  on  the  top 
of  a  staff  instead  of  the  crozier,  is  borne  by  the  Pope  only ;  the 
staff  with  a  single  cross,  by  the  Greek  bishops. 

766.  At  first  the  cross  was  a  sign  only  when  formed  of  gold 
or  silver,  the  five  wounds  of  Christ  were  signified  by  a  ruby 
or  carbuncle  at  each  extremity,  and  one  in  the  centre.     It  was 
not  till  the  sixth  century  that  the  cross  became  a  CRUCIFIX,  no 
longer  an  emblem  but  an  image. 


SYMBOLIC    EMBLEMS.  227 

767.  Constantino  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
who  ordered  the  cross  to  be  used  as  the  sign  or  emblem  under 
which   he    would   fight   and   conquer,   in  remembrance   of   a 
miraculous  appearance  of  a  cross  in  the  heavens.     It  was,  how- 
ever, used  emblematically  before  the  Christian  era.     Upon  a 
multitude  of  medals  and  ancient  monuments  are  to  be  found 
crosses  placed  in  the  hands  of  statues  of  victory  and  of  figures 
of  emperors.     It  was  also  placed  upon  a  globe,  which,  ever 
since  the  days  of  Augustus,  has  become  the  sign  of  the  empire 
of  the  world  and  the  image  of  victory.      The   shields,  the 
cuirasses,  the  helmets,  the  imperial  cap,  were  all  thus  decorated. 
The  cross  has  also  been  stamped  upon  the  reverses  of  money. 
The  cross  is  now  the  universal  Christian  emblem,  being  used 
upon  the  arms  and  banners  of  the  soldier,  the  vestments  of  the 
priest,  and  in  armorial  bearings.     The  forms  of  churches,  and 
often  the  patterns  of  their  pavements  are  adapted  to  the  repre- 
sentation of   the  cross ;    which  is    also   sculptured  upon  and 
separately  elevated  upon  tombs  and  sepulchres.      Sculptured 
crosses  of  various  descriptions,  elevated  upon  handsome  pedes- 
tals, were  formerly  erected  in  cemeteries  and  market-places  to 
designate  peculiar  events,  like  the  queen's  crosses  at  North- 
ampton, and  Waltham.  (w) 

768.  In  the  time  of  the  crusades,  or  wars  for  the  recovery 
of  the  Holy  Land  from  the  Turks,  the  cross  was  the  emblem, 
and  gave  the  name  to  the  crusaders,  who  took  up  the  cross  and 
swore  to  defend  its  faith  against  infidels.     From  this  period, 
the  cross  entered  into  the  art  of  heraldry,  where  it  still  remains 
and  maintains  a  distinguished  place  among  the  ancient  families 
of  Europe.     It  is  also  raised  as  an  emblem  of  Christianity  on 
most   churches    and   ecclesiastical   buildings    of   the    Catholic 
religion. 

769.  For   the   forms   of  churches   two    different   ones   are 
adopted,  the  Greek  and  the  Latin.     The  Greek  cross  has  its 
arms  at  right  angles,  and  all  of  equal  length,  and  the  Latin  has 
one  of  its  limbs  much  longer  than  the  other  three. 

770.  The  LAMB  in  Christian  art  is  the  peculiar  symbol  of  the 


228  STUDY   OF  ART. 

Redeemer  as  the  sacrifice  without  blemish ;  in  this  sense  it  is 
given  as  an  attribute  to  John  the  Baptist.  The  lamb  is  also 
the  general  emblem  of  innocence,  meekness,  modesty ;  in  this 
sense  it  is  given  to  St.  Agnes. 

771.  The   PELICAN   tearing  open  her  breast  to  feed  her 
young  with  her  own  blood,  was  an  early  symbol  of  our  re- 
demption through  Christ.     One  or  both  of  these  emblems  are 
frequently  found  in  ancient  crosses  and  crucifixes ;  the  lamb  at 
the  foot,  the  pelican  at  the  top  of  the  cross. 

772.  In  Christian  art  the  DRAGON  is  the  emblem  of  sin  in 
general,  and  of  the  sin  of  idolatry  in  particular.     The  dragon 
slain  or  vanquished  by  the  power  of  the  cross,  is  the  perpetually 
recurring  myth,  which  varied  in  a  thousand  ways,   we  find 
running  through  all  the  old  Christian  legends,  and  not  subject 
to  misapprehension  in  the  earliest  times ;  but  as  the  cloud  of 
ignorance  darkened  and  deepened,  the  symbol  was  translated 
into  a  fact.     It  has  been  suggested  that  the  dragon  which  is  to 
us  a  phantom  and  an  allegory,  which  in  the  middle  ages  was 
the  demon  adversary  of  all  truth  and  goodness,  might  have 
been,  as  regards  form,  originally  a  fact ;  for  wherever  we  have 
dragon  legends,  whether  the  scene  be  laid  in  Asia,  Africa,  or 
Europe,  the   imputed  circumstances   and  the  form  are   little 
varied,  (v) 

773.  The  dragon  of  Holy  Writ,  is  the  same  as  the  serpent, 
i.  e.,  personified  sin,  the  spiritual  enemy  of  mankind.    The  scrip- 
tural phrase  of  the  "jaws  of  hell,"  is  literally  rendered  in  the 
ancient  works  of  art,  by  the  huge  jaws  of  a  dragon  wide  open, 
and  emitting  flames  into  which  the  souls  of  sinners  are  tumbled 
headlong.      In  pictures  sin   is  also  typified  by  a  serpent   or 
snake. 

774.  The  LION  was  an  ancient  symbol  of  the  Redeemer, 
"  the  lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah :"   also    of  the    resurrection 
of  the  Redeemer ;  because  according  to  an  Oriental  fable,  the 
lion's  cub  was  born  dead,  and  in  three  days,  its  sire  licked  it 
into  life. 

775.  The  lion  also  testifies  solitude — the  wilderness  ;  and  in 


SYMBOLIC  EMBLEMS.  229 

this  sense  is  placed  near  St.  Jerome  and  other  saints  who  did 
penance,  or  lived  as  hermits  in  the  desert.  The  lion,  as  the 
type  of  fortitude  and  resolution,  was  placed  at  the  feet  of  those 
martyrs  who  had  suffered  with  singular  courage. 

776.  When  other  wild  beasts,  as  wolves  and  bears,  are  placed 
at  the  feet  of  a  saint  attired  as  bishop  or  abbot,  it  signifies  that 
he    cleared   waste   land,   cut    down    forests,   and   substituted 
Christian  culture  and  civilization  for  paganism,  and  the  lawless 
hunter's  life. 

777.  The  HART  or  HIND  was  also  an  emblem  of  double 
signification.     It  was  a  type  of  solitude  and  purity  of  life,  and 
was  also  a  type  of  piety  and  religious  aspiration,  adopted  from 
the  forty-second  psalm,  "  Like  as  the  hart  panteth  after  the 
water-brooks,  so  panteth  my  soul  for  thee,  O  God !" 

778.  When  the  original  meaning  of  the  lion,  the  hart,  and 
other  emblems  was  no  longer  present  to  the  popular  mind, 
legends  were  invented  to  account  for  them,  and  that  which  had 
been  a  symbol  became  an  incident,  or  an  historical  attribute. 

779.  The  PEACOCK,  the  bird  of  Juno,  was  an  ancient  Pagan 
symbol,  signifying  the  apotheosis  of  an  empress,  as  we  find  from 
many  of  the  old  Roman  coins  and  medals.     The  early  Chris- 
tians, accustomed  to  this  interpretation,  adopted  it  as  a  general 
emblem  of  the  mortal  exchanged  for  the  immortal  existence, 
and,  with  this  signification,  we  find  the  peacock  with  outspread 
train  on  the  walls  and  ceilings  of  catacombs,  the  tombs  of  the 
martyrs,  and  many  of  the  sarcophagi  down  to  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries.     It  is  only  in  modern  times  that  the  peacock  has 
become  the  emblem  of  worldly  pride. 

780.  The  CROWN,  as  introduced  in  Christian  art,  is  either  an 
emblem  or  an  attribute.     From  all  antiquity,  it  has  been  the 
emblem  of  victory,  and  of  recompense  due  to  superior  power  or 
virtue.     In  this  sense,  the  word  and  the  image  are  used  in 
Scripture  in  many  passages.    For  example  :  "  Henceforth,  there 
is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of  glory."     And  in  this  sense,  as  the 
recompense  of  those  who  had  fought  the  good  fight  to  the  end 
and  conquered,  the  crown  became  the  special  symbol  of  the 


230  STUDY   OF   ART. 

glory  of  martyrdom.  In  general,  only  the  female  martyrs  wear 
the  symbolical  crown  of  glory ;  martyrs  of  the  other  sex  hold 
the  crown  in  their  hands,  or  it  is  borne  by  an  angel.  Hence, 
we  may  presume  that  the  crown,  which,  among  the  Jews,  was 
the  especial  ornament  of  a  bride,  signified  the  bride  or  spouse 
of  Christ :  one  dedicated  to  Tirginity  for  his  sake ;  and,  in  this 
sense,  down  to  the  present  time,  the  crown  is  placed  on  the 
head  of  a  man  at  the  moment  of  consecration.  Therefore,  in 
the  old  pictures  of  female  martyrs,  we  may  interpret  the  crown 
in  this  double  sense,  as  signifying  at  once  the  bride  and  the 
martyr.  But  it  is  necessary  also  to  distinguish  between  the 
symbol  and  the  attribute.  Thus,  when  St.  Cecilia  and  St.  Bar- 
bara wear  the  crown,  it  is  the  symbol  of  their  glorious  martyr- 
dom ;  when  St.  Catharine  and  St.  Ursula  wear  the  crown,  it  is 
at  once  the  symbol  of  martyrdom  and  the  attribute  of  their 
royal  rank  as  princesses. 

781.  The  crown  is  also  a  symbol  of  sovereignty.    When  it  is 
placed  on  the  head  of  the  Virgin,  it  is  as  the  Queen  of  Heaven, 
and  also  as  the  spouse  of  Scripture  allegory.     The  crown  is 
also  an  attribute,   and,  frequently,  when  worn  by  a  saint,  or 
placed  at  his  feet,  signifies  that  he  was  royal  or  of  princely 
birth. 

782.  The  SWORD  is  also  either  a  symbol  or  an  attribute. 
As  a  symbol,  it  signifies  generally  a  violent  death  or  martyr- 
dom ;  and,  in  this  sense,  is  given  to  many  saints  who  did  not  die 
by  the  sword.     As  an  attribute,  it  signifies  the  particular  death 
suffered,  and  that  the  martyr,  in  whose  hand  or  at  whose  feet  it 
is  placed,  was  beheaded ;  in  this  sense,  it  is  given  to  St.  Paul, 
St.  Catharine  and  many  others.     It  is  given  also  to  the  warrior 
martyrs,  as  the  attribute  of  their  military  profession.     Other 
general  symbols  of  martyrdom  are  the  axe,  the  lance,  and  the 
club. 

783.  The  PALM,  the  ancient  classical  symbol  of  victory  and 
triumph,  was  rarely  assumed  by  the  Christians  as  the  universal 
symbol  of  martyrdom,  and,  for  this  adaptation  of  a  Pagan  or- 
nament, they  found  warrant  in  Scripture :  "  And  after  this  I 


SYMBOLIC    EMBLEMS.  231 

beheld,  and  lo !  a  great  multitude  stood  before  the  throne,  clothed 
with  white  robes  and  white  palms  in  their  hands."  *  *  *  "  And 
he  said  to  me,  these  are  they  which  came  out  of  great  tribula- 
tion." Hence,  in  pictures  of  martyrdoms,  an  angel  descends 
with  the  palm  ;  hence,  it  is  figured  in  the  tombs  of  martyrs,  and 
placed  in  the  hands  of  those  who  have  suffered  in  the  cause  of 
truth,  as  expressing  their  final  victory  over  the  power  of  sin  and 
death. 

784.  The  STANDARD,  or  banner,  is  also  the  symbol  of  victory, 
the  spiritual  victory  over  sin,  death,  and  idolatry. 

785.  The  OLIVE,  as  the  well  known  emblem  of  peace  and 
reconciliation,  is  figured  on  the  tombs  of  early  martyrs.     Some- 
times with,  sometimes  without  the  dove. 

786.  The  DOVE,  in  Christian  art,  is  an  emblem  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.     The  dove  is  also  an  emblem  of  simplicity  and  purity 
of  heart,  and,  as  such,  is  introduced  into  pictures  of  female 
saints,  and  especially  of  the  Madonna  and  Child.     It  is  also  the 
emblem  of  the  soul ;  in  this  sense,  it  is  seen  issuing  from  the 
lips  of  dying  martyrs. 

787.  The  LILY  is  another  symbol  of  purity  of  very  general 
application.    We  find  it  in  the  pictures  of  the  Virgin,  and  parti- 
cularly in  pictures  of  the  Annunciation.     It  is  placed  signifi- 
cantly in  the  hand  of  Joseph,  the  husband  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
his  staff,  according  to  the  legend,  having  put  forth  lilies.     It  is 
given  to  other  saints,  to  express  the  purity  of  their  lives. 

788.  The  UNICORN  is  another  ancient  symbol  of  purity,  in 
allusion  to  the  fable  that  it  could  never  be  captured,  except  by 
a  virgin,  stainless  in  mind  and  life ;  it  has  become,  in  conse- 
quence, peculiarly  the    emblem  of  female    chastity;   but,   in 
Christian  art,  is  appropriate  only  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  St. 
Justina. 

789.  The   FLAMING   HEART   expresses  fervent  piety  and 
love. 

790.  The  BOOK,  in  the  hands  of  the  Evangelists  and  the 
Apostles,  is  an  attribute,  and  represents  the  Gospel.     In  the 
hand  of  St.  Stephen,  it  is  the  old  Testament ;  in  the  hand  of  any 


232  STUDY  OF  ART. 

other  saint,  it  may  be  the  Gospel,  but  it  may  also  be  an  emblem 
only  signifying  that  the  saint  was  famous  for  his  learning  or  his 
writings. 

791.  A  CHURCH  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  saint,  signifies  that 
lie  was  the  founder  of  some  particular  church. 

792.  The  SCOURGE,  in  the  hand  of  a  saint,  or  at  his  feet, 
signifies  the  penances  he  inflicted  upon  himself;  but  in  the  hand 
of  St.  Ambrose,  it  signifies  the  penance  he  inflicted  upon  others. 

793.  The  ARK  OF  NOAH,  floating  safe  amid  the  deluge,  in 
which  all  things  else  were  overwhelmed,  was  an  obvious  symbol 
of  the    Church  of  Christ.     Subsequently  the  Ark  became  a 
SHIP.     St.  Ambrose  likens  the  Church  of  God  to  a  ship,  and 
the  Cross  to  a  mast  seen  in  the  midst  of  it.     The  Bark  of  St. 
Peter,  tossed  in  the  storm,  and  by  the  Redeemer  guided  safe  to 
land,  was  also  considered  as  symbolical.     These  mingled  asso- 
ciations combined  to  give  the  emblem  of  the  ship  a  sacred 
significance. 

794.  The  ANCHOR  is  the  Christian  symbol   of  immovable 
firmness,  hope,  and  patience ;  and,  in  this  sense,  we  find  it  very 
frequently  in  the  catacombs,  and  on  the  ancient  Christian  gems. 
It  was  given  to  several  of  the  early  saints  as  a  symbol.     Sub- 
sequently, a  legend  was  invented  to  account  for  the  symbol, 
turning  it  into  an  attribute,  as  was  the  case  with  the  lion  and 
the  stag. 

795.  THE  LAMP,  LANTERN,  or  TAPER,  is  the  old  emblem  of 
piety.     "  Let  your  light  so  shine  before  men."     And  it  also 
signifies  wisdom. 

796.  FLOWERS  and  FRUITS,  often  so  beautifully  introduced 
into  ecclesiastical  works  of  art,  may  be  merely  ornamental;  but 
in  some  instances  they  have  a  definite  signification. 

797.  The  apple  was  the  received  emblem  of  the  fall  of  man, 
and  original  sin.    Placed  in  pictures  of  the  Madonna  and  Child, 
either  in  the  hand  of  the  infant  Christ,  or  represented  by  an 
angel,  it  signified  Redemption  from  the  consequences  of  the 
fall.     The  pomegranate  bursting  open,  and  the  seeds  visible, 
was  an  emblem  of  the  future — of  hope  in  immortality.     When 


SYMBOLIC    EMBLEMS.  233 

an  apple,  a  pear,  or  a  pomegranate  is  placed  in  the  hands  of 
St.  Catharine  as  the  mystical  sposa  of  Christ,  the  allusion  is  to 
be  taken  in  the  Scriptural  sense.  The  fruit  of  the  spirit  is  love, 
joy,  peace. 

798.  THE  CROSIER  was  the  pastoral  staff,  or  emblematical 
crook,  of  a  bishop.  The  crosiers  of  many  of  the  Catholic  bishops 
were  made  of  costly  materials  and  elegant  workmanship.* 

*  Symbolic  Christian  emblems  are  quoted  from  Mrs.  Jameson. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

SCULPTURE. 

799.  IN  the  imitative  scale  of  the  fine  arts,  sculpture  ranks 
next  to  painting.     Both  have  for  their  object  the  imitation  of 
form.     In  the  art  of  painting,  the  representation  of  form  is  illu- 
sive ;  effect  being  given  on  a  flat  surface,  by  the  aid  of  light, 
shade  and  color.     In  the  art  of  sculpture  form  is  represented 
by  substance.     Each  art  has  its  own  laws  and  requirements. 
The  sculptor,  like  all  artists,  aims  to  gratify  the  pleasures  of 
taste,  more  particularly  those  for  beauty  of  form.     The  painter 
has  various  resources  for  appealing  to  the  sentiment  of  beauty. 
If  he  fails  to  please  by  the  representation  of  form,  he  may  still 
gratify  the  taste  by  the  combination  of  hues,  or  the  arrangement 
of  the  line,  and  light  and  shade,  while  the  sculptor  cannot  hope 
for  success  if  he  fails  in  beauty  of  form.     In  choice  of  subject, 
too,  the  painter  being  less  limited,  has  the  advantage.     The 
sculptor  must  not  choose  his  subject  beyond  the  period  of  full 
maturity.     Age  is  picturesque,  not  statuesque.     Some  of  the 
finest  subjects  for  the  painter  are  heads  that  old  Time  has  marked 
for  his  own ;  but  what  could  the  sculptor  do  with  a  long  grey 
beard,  which  is  a  picture  in  itself. 

800.  The  sculptor  u  represents  substance  by  substance,"  imi- 
tates form  by  form,  therefore  his  art  requires  first,  great  anato- 
mical truth,  and  next  perfect  accuracy  of  detail.     Truth  to 
nature  also  requires  that  the  physical  conformation  should  cor- 
respond to  the  expression  of  character  both  in  features  and  atti- 
tude, belonging  to  the  temperament  of  the   subject.     These 
points  were  carefully  observed  by  the  ancient  Greek  sculptors, 
whose  skill  their  followers  emulate,  but  fail  to  attain. 


SCULPTURE.  235 

801.  The  elements  of  composition  have  already  been  treated, 
to  which  is  added  a  few  pages  from  Charles  Bell, 

ON  THOSE  SOURCES  OF  EXPRESSION  IN  THE  HUMAN  COUN- 
TENANCE WHICH  CANNOT  BE  EXPLAINED  ON  THE  IDEA  OP 
A  DIRECT  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  MIND  UPON  THE  FEATURES. 

802.  In  the  human  countenance,  under  the  influence  of  pas- 
sion, there  are  characters  expressed,  and  changes  of  features 
produced,  which  it  is  impossible  to  explain  on  the  notion  of  a 
direct  operation  of  the  mind  upon  the  features.     Ignorance  of 
the  source  of  these  changes  of  the  features,  or  inattention  to 
the  cause  which  produces  them,  has  thrown  an  obscurity  over 
the  whole  of  this  subject  which  it  is  my  wish  to  remove. 

803.  If,  in  the  examination  of  the  sources  of  expression,  it 
should  be  found  that  the  mind  is  dependent  on  the  posture  of 
the  body,  the  discovery  ought  not  to  be  considered  as  humiliat- 
ing, or  as  affecting  the  belief  of  a  separate  existence  of  that  part 
of  our  nature  on  which  the  changes  wrought  in  the  body  are 
ultimately  impressed.     Since  we  are  dwellers  in  the  material 
world,  it  is  necessary  that  the  spirit  should  be  connected  with 
it  by  an  organized  body,  without  which,  it  could  neither  feel 
nor  re-act,  nor  manifest  itself  in  any  way.     It  is  a  fundamental 
law  of  our  nature  that  the  mind  shall  have  its  powers  developed 
through  the  influence  of  the  body ;  that  the  organs  of  the  body 
shall  be  the  links  in  the  chain  of  relation  between  it  and  the 
material  world,  through  which  the  immaterial  principle  within 
shall  be  affected. 

804.  As  the  Creator  has  established  this  connection  between 
the  mind  and  external  nature,  so  has  he  implanted,  or  caused 
to  be  generated,  in  us,  various  higher  intellectual  faculties.    On 
every  intelligent  being,  He  has  laid  the  foundation  of  emotions 
that  point  to  Him,  affections  by  which  we  are  drawn  to  Him, 
and  which  rest  in  Him  as  their  object.     In  the  mind  of  the 
rudest  slave,  left  to  the  education  of  the  mere  elements  around 
him,  sentiments  arise  which  lead  him  to  a  parent  and  a  Creator 


236  STUDY    OF   ART. 

These  feelings  spring  up  spontaneously ;  they  are  universal  and 
not  to  be  stricken  off;  and  no  better  example  than  this  can  be 
given  of  the  adaptation  of  the  mind  to  the  various  relations  in 
which  man  is  placed,  or  one  that  tends  more  to  raise  in  us  a 
conception  of  the  Author  of  our  being,  and  increase  our  esti- 
mation of  ourselves  as  allied  to  Him. 

805.  This  it  is  perhaps  necessary  to  premise,  when  I  am 
about  to  prove  the  extensive  influence  of  the  corporeal  on  the 
intellectual  part  of  man. 

806.  In  examining  the  phenomena  of  the  mind,  philosophers 
have  too  much  overlooked  this  relation  between  the  mental 
operations  and  the  condition  of  the  bodily  frame.     It  appears 
to  me  that  the  frame  of  the  body  exclusive  of  the  special  organs 
of  hearing,  seeing,  etc.,  is  a  complex  organ,  I  shall  not  say  of 
sense,  but  which  ministers  like  the  external  senses  of  the  mind ; 
that  is  to  say,  as  the  organs  of  the  five  senses  furnish  ideas  of 
matter,  the  frame-work  of  the  body  contributes,  in  certain  con- 
ditions, to  develope  various  states  of  the  mind. 

807.  In  the  affections  which  we  call  passions  or  emotions, 
there  is  an  influence  which  points  to  the  heart  as  the  part  where 
they  are  felt.     Some  have  asserted  that  they  are  seated  in  the 
bowels ;  and  the  sensations  I  am  about  to  describe  have  been 
arrayed  as  proofs  that  the  affections  exist  in  the  body.     But 
that,  I  affirm,  is  impossible.     They  are  conditions  of  the  mind ; 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  there  is  a  mutual  influence  ex- 
ercised by  the  mind  and  frame  on  each  other.     This  is  not 
asserted  on  the  mere  grounds  that  each  affection  which  is  deeply 
felt,  is  accompanied  by  a  disturbance  in  our  heart ;  nor  on  the 
language  of  mankind,  which  gives  universal  assent  to  this  pro- 
position ;  but  it  may  be  proved  by  circumstances  of  expression, 
in  which  we  cannot  be  deceived.     I  shall  make  it  manifest  that 
what  the  eye,  the  ear,  or  the  finger  is  to  the  mind,  as  exciting 
those  ideas  which  have  been  appointed  to  correspond  with  the 
qualities  of  the  material  world,  the  organs  of  the  breast  are  to 
the  development  of  our  affections;  and  that  without  them  we 
might  see,  hear  and  smell,  but  we  should  walk  the  earth  coldly 


SCULPTUiK.  237 

indifferent  to  all  emotions  which  may  be  said  in  an  especial 
manner  to  animate  us,  and  give  interest  and  grace  to  human 
thoughts  and  actions. 

808.  By  emotions  are  meant  certain  changes  or  affections  of 
the  mind,  as  grief,  joy,  and  astonishment.     That  such  states  or 
conditions  of  the  mind  should  in  any  degree  pertain  to  the  body, 
may  not,  perhaps,  be  willingly  admitted,  unless  we  take  along 
with  us  that  the  ideas  of  sense,  as  light,  sound,  or  taste,  are 
generated  by  the  organs  of  the  senses,  and  not  by  anything 
received  or  conveyed  by  them  to  the  sensorium.     It  is  ascer- 
tained that  the  different  organs  of  the  senses  can  be  exercised, 
and  give  rise  to  sensation  and  perception,  when  there  is  no 
corresponding  outward  impression ;  and  the  ideas  thus  excited 
are  according  to  the  organ  struck  or  agitated :  that  is,  the  same 
impression  conveyed  to  different  organs  of  sense  will  give  rise 
to  a  variety  of  sensations  ;  as  light,  when  the  eye  is  struck ; 
sound  when  the  ear  is  struck ;  and  so  on  with  the  other  organs ; 
the  sensation  corresponding  with  the  organ  which  is  exercised, 
and  not  with  the  cause  of  the  impression.     A  needle  passed 
through  the  retina,  the  organ  of  vision,  will  produce  the  sensa- 
tion of  a  spark  of  fire,  not  of  sharpness  or  pain ;  and  the  same 
needle,  if  applied  to  the  papillae  of  the  tongue,  will  give  rise  to 
the  sense  of  taste ;  while  if  it  prick  the  skin  pain  will  follow. 
This   law  of  the  senses  is  arbitrarily  or  divinely  ordered ;  it 
might  have  been  otherwise.     Accordingly,  when  we  observe 
that  the  organs  of  the  senses  operate  in  producing  specific  ideas, 
independently  of  their  own  peculiar  exciting  causes,  we  can  com- 
prehend better  how  other  organs  of  the  body  may  have  a  rela- 
tion established  in  the  mind,  and  a  control  over  it,  without  re- 
ference to  outward  impressions. 

809.  Let  us  consider  the  heart  in  its  office  of  receiving  the 
influence  of  the  mind,  and  of  reflecting  that  influence. 

It  may,  in  the  first  place,  be  observed,  that  there  is  hardly 
an  organ  of  the  body  limited  to  one  function ;  all  are  complex 
in  their  operation.  How  many  offices,  for  example,  are  per- 
formed by  the  lungs  ?  It  is  a  singular  fact  in  the  history  of 


238  STUDY  OF  ART. 

physiological  opinions,  that  the  heart,  an  organ  the  most  sus- 
ceptible of  being  excited  by  the  agitations  or  derangements  of 
the  body,  should  have  been  considered  at  one  time  as  insensible. 
And  yet,  in  one  sense,  it  is  true  that  it  is  so.  To  actual  touch 
the  heart  is  insensible,  as  was  exhibited  to  the  illustrious  Har- 
vey, in  the  person  of  a  young  nobleman,  who  had  the  heart  ex- 
posed by  disease.  This  single  circumstance,  had  there  been  no 
other  evidence,  should  have  earlier  directed  physiologists  to  a 
correct  view  of  the  matter ;  from  its  proving  that  the  internal 
organs  are  affected  and  united  by  sensibilities  which  are  alto- 
gether different  in  kind  from  those  bestowed  on  the  skin.  The 
sensibility  of  the  external  surface  of  the  body  is  a  special  en- 
dowment adapted  to  the  elements  around,  and  calculated  to 
protect  the  internal  parts  from  injury.  But  though  the  heart 
has  not  this  common  sense  of  touch,  yet  it  has  an  appropriate 
sensibility,  by  which  it  is  held  united  in  the  closest  connection 
and  sympathy  with  the  other  vital  organs ;  so  that  it  participates 
in  all  the  changes  of  the  general  system  of  the  body. 

810.  But  connected  with  the  heart,  and  depending  on  its  pe- 
culiar and  excessive  sensibility,  there  is  an  extensive  apparatus 
which  demands  our  attention.     This  is  the  organ  of  breathing ; 
a  part  known  obviously  as  the  instrument  of  speech ;  but  which 
I  shall  show  to  be  more.     The  organ  of  breathing,  in  its  asso- 
ciation with  the  heart,  is  the  instrument  of  expression,  and  is 
the  part  of  the  frame,  by  the  action  of  which  the  emotions  are 
developed  and  made  visible  to  us.     Certain  strong  feelings  of 
the  mind  produce  a  disturbed  condition  of  the  heart,  indirectly 
from  the  mind,  the  extensive  apparatus  constituting  the  organ 
of  breathing  is  put  in  motion,  and  gives  us  the  outward  signs 
which  we  call  expression.     The  man  was  wrong  who  found 
fault  with  nature  for  not  placing  a  window  before  the  heart,  in 
order  to  render  visible  human  thoughts  and  intentions.     There 
is,  in  truth,  provision  made  in  the  countenance  and  outward 
bearing  for  such  discoveries. 

811.  One,  ignorant  of  the  grounds  on  which  these  opinions 
are  founded,  has  said,  "  Every  strong  emotion  is  directed  to- 


SCULPTURE.  239 

wards  the  heart :  the  heart  experiences  various  kinds  of  sensa- 
tion, pleasant  or  unpleasant,  over  which  it  has  no  control ;  and 
from  thence  the  agitated  spirits  are  diffused  over  the  body." 
The  fact  is  certainly  so,  although  the  language  be  figurative. 
How  are  these  spirits  diffused,  and  what  are  their  effects  ? 

812.  We  find  that  the  influence  of  the  heart  upon  the  ex- 
tended organ  of  respiration  has  sway  at  so  early  a  period  of  our 
existence,  that  we  must  acknowledge  that  the  operation  or  play 
of  the  instrument  of  expression  precedes  the  mental  emotions 
with  which  they  are  to  be  joined,  accompanies  them  in  their 
first  dawn,  strengthens  them,  and  directs  them.     So  that  it  is 
not,  perhaps,  too  much  to   conclude  that,   from  these  organs 
moving  in  sympathy  with  the  mind,  the  same  uniformity  is  pro- 
duced among  men,  in  their  internal  feelings,  emotions,  or  pas- 
sions, as  exists  in  their  ideas  of  external  nature  from  the  uni- 
form operations  of  the  organs  of  sense. 

813.  Let  us  place  examples  before  us,  and  then  try  whether 
the  received  doctrines  of  the  passions  will  furnish  us  with  an 
explanation  of  the  phenomena,  or,  whether  we  must  go  deeper, 
and  seek  the  assistance  of  anatomy. 

814.  In  the  expression  of  the  passions,  there  is  a  compound 
influence  in  operation.     Let  us  contemplate  the  appearance  of 
terror.     We  can  readily  conceive  why  a  man  stands  with  eyes 
intently  fixed  on  the  object  of  his  fears,  the  eyebrows  elevated 
to  the  utmost,  and  the  eye  largely  uncovered ;  or  why,  with 
hesitating  and  bewildered  steps,  his  eyes  are  rapidly  and  wildly 
in  search  of  something.     In  this,  we  only  perceive  the  intent 
application  of  his  mind  to  the  object  of  his  apprehensions — its 
direct  influence  on  the  outward  organ.     But,  observe  him  fur- 
ther ;  there  is  a  spasm  on  his  breast,  he  cannot  breathe  freely, 
the  chest  is  elevated,  the  muscles  of  his  neck  and  shoulders  are 
in  action,  his  breathing  is  short  and  rapid,  there  is  a  gasping 
and  a  convulsive  motion  of  his  lips,  and  tremor  on  his  hollow 
cheek,  a  gulping  and  catching  of  his  throat ;  and  why  does  his 
heart  knock  at  his  ribs,  while  yet  there  is  no  force  of  circula- 
tion ? — for  his  lips  and  cheeks  are  ashy  pale. 


240  STUDY   OF   ART. 

815.  So  in  grief,  if  we  attend  to  the  same  class  of  phenomena, 
we  shall  be  able  to  draw  an  exact  picture.     Let  us  imagine  to 
ourselves  the  overwhelming  influence  of  grief  on  woman.     The 
object  in  her  mind  has  absorbed  all  the  powers  of  the  frame, 
the  body  is  no  more  regarded,  the  spirits  have  left  it,  it  reclines, 
and  the  limbs  gravitate;  they  are  nerveless  and  relaxed,  and 
she  scarcely  breathes ;  but  why  comes  at  intervals  the  long- 
drawn  sigh  ? — why  are  the  neck  and  throat  convulsed  ? — what 
causes  the  swelling  and  quivering  of  the  lips,  and  the  deadly 
paleness  of  the  face  ?— or  why  is  the  hand  so  pale  and  earthly 
cold? — and  why  at  intervals,  as  the  agony  returns,  does  the 
convulsion  spread  over  the  frame  like  a  paroxysm  of  suffocation  ? 

816.  It  must,  I  think,  be  acknowledged,  when  we  come  to 
arrange  these  phenomena,  these  outward  signs  of  the  passions, 
that  they  cannot  proceed  from  the  direct  influence  of  the  mind 
alone.     However  strange  it  may  sound  to  unaccustomed  ears,  it 
is  to  the  heart  and  lungs,  and  all  the  extended  instrument  of 
breathing  that  we  are  to  trace  these  effects. 

817.  Over  such  motions  of  the  body,  the  mind  has  an  une- 
qual control.     By  a  strong  effort  the  outward  tokens  may  be 
restrained,  at  least  in  regard  to  the  general  bearing  of  the  body ; 
but  who,  while  suffering,  can  retain  the  natural  fulness  of  his 
features,  or  the  healthful  color  of  his  cheek,  the  unembarrassed 
respiration  and  clearness  of  the  natural  voice  ?     The  villain 
may  command  his  voice  and  mask  his  purpose  with  light  and 
libertine  words,  or  carry  an  habitual  sneer  of  contempt  of  all 
softer  passions ;  but  his  unnatural  paleness,  and  the  sinking  of 
his  features  will  betray  what  he  suffers.     Clarence  says  of  his 

murderers, 

"  How  deadly  dost  thou  speak ! 
Your  eyes  do  menace  me  :  Why  look  you  pale  1" 

But  the  just  feelings  of  mankind  demand  respect ;  men  will 
not  have  the  violence  of  grief  obtruded  on  them.  To  preserve 
the  dignity  of  his  character,  the  actor  must  permit  those  uncon- 
trollable signs  of  suffering  alone  to  escape,  which  betray  how 
much  he  feels,  and  how  much  he  restrains. 


SCULPTURE.  241 

818.  Even  while  asleep,  these  interior  organs  of  feeling  will 
prevail,  and  disclose  the  source  of  expression.     Has  my  reader 
seen  Mrs.  Siddons  in  Queen   Katharine  during  that  solemn 
scene  where  the  sad  note  was  played  that  she  named  her  knell  ? 
Who  taught  the  crowd,  sitting  at  a  play,  an  audience  differing 
in  age,  habits  and  education,  to  believe  those  quivering  motions, 
and  that  gentle  smile,  and  those  slight  convulsive  twitchings  to 
be  true  to  nature  ?     To  see  every  one  hushed  to  the  softest 
breathing  of  sympathy  with  the  silent  expression  of  the  actress, 
exhibits  all  mankind  held  together  by  one  universal  feeling ; 
and  that  feeling,  excited  by  expression,  so  deeply  laid  in  our 
nature,  as  to  have  influence  without  being  obvious  to  reason. 

819.  To  illustrate  this  curious   subject,  I  shall  first  explain 
the  extensive  connections  which  are  established  betwixt  the 
great  organs  that  sustain  life  and  the  muscular  system  of  the 
face,  neck,  and  chest.     I  shall  then  show  that  the  functions  of 
these  organs  are  effected  by  passions  of  the  mind.     I  shall 
prove  that  this  connection  subsists  at  the  moment  of  birth,  and 
accompanies  us  through  life ;  and,  finally,  that  from  this  source 
are  derived  those  obscure  indications  of  emotion  in  the  counte- 
nance and  general  frame,  which  cannot  be  explained  in  the 
supposition  of  a  direct  influence  of  the  mind  on  the  muscles  of 
expression. 

820.  The  heart  and  the  lungs  may  be  safely  taken  as  two 
parts  which  are  combined  in  the  same  function.     The  action 
of  the  heart,  and  the  motion  of  the  lungs,  are  equally  necessary 
to  the  circulation  of  the  blood  which  is  fitted  for  the  supply  of 
the  body ;  and  the  interruption  of  these  motions  threatens  life. 
Accordingly,  these  two  organs  are  united  by  nerves,  and  con- 
sequently, by  the  closest  sympathy ;  and  in  all  the  variations  to 
which  they  are  liable,  they  are   still  found  to  correspond,  the 
accelerated  action  of  the  one  being  directly  followed  by  the  ex- 
citement of  the  other 

821.  The  motion  of  the  lungs  proceeds  from  a  force  altogether 
external  to  them :  they  themselves  are  passive,  being  moved 
by  a  very  great  number  of  muscles  which  lie  upon  the  breast. 

11 


242  STUDY  OF  ART. 

back,  and  neck ;  that  is,  the  exterior  muscles  give  play  to  the 
ribs,  and  the  lungs  follow  the  motions  of  the  chest.  The  heart 
and  lungs,  though  insensible  to  common  impression,  yet  being 
acutely  alive  to  their  proper  stimulus,  suffer  from  the  slightest 
changes  or  exertion  of  the  frame,  and  also  from  the  changes  or 
affections  of  the  mind.  The  impression  thus  made  on  these 
internal  organs  is  not  visible  by  its  effect  on  them.  This  law 
exists  in  all  mankind ;  we  see  the  consequence  in  those  sus- 
ceptible, nervous  persons,  whom  the  mere  change  of  position, 
or  the  effort  of  rising,  or  the  slightest  emotion  of  mind  flutters 
and  agitates.  But  it  is  when  the  strong  are  subdued  by  this 
mysterious  union  of  soul  and  body,  when  passion  tears  the 
breast,  that  the  most  affecting  picture  of  human  frailty  is  pre- 
sented, and  the  surest  proof  afforded,  that  it  is  on  the  respi- 
ratory organs  that  the  influence  of  passion  falls  with  so  powerful 
an  expression  of  agony.* 

OF   THE    EAR. 

822.  The  ear  has  always  been  wrought  with  the  greatest 
care  by  the  ancient  sculptors.    Winckleman  says,  by  a  fragment 
of  a  mutilated  head,  if  it  affords  only  the  ear,  we  may  judge 
with  certainty  of  the  beauty  and  style  of  the  whole  statue ;  and 
of  those  where  the  workmanship  is  of  inferior  style,  or  of 
doubtful  antiquity,  the  ear  will  always  decide.     In  the  first 
place  a  beautiful  ear  vouches  for  its  antiquity,  as  an  ill  worked 
one  has  never  reached  us  from  their  best  times ;  and  modern 
artists  who  have  restored  antique  statues,  have  always  failed  in 
giving  so  beautiful  a  representation  of  the  auricular  organ  as 
the  ancients.     In  the  second  instance,  the  ear  in  all  genuine 
antiques,  participates    in   character  with  the  whole  work,  of 
which  it  forms  a  sort  of  attribute,  and  will  always  detect  the 
restorer's  hand. 

823.  A  particular  or  characteristic  form  of  ear  is  always 
found  to  belong  to  the  statues  of  the  ancients ;  and  those  of 
Hercules  are  particularly  marked.     The  ears  of  this  god  are 

*  The  Anatomy  and  Philosophy  of  Expression,  by  Sir  Charles  Bell. 


SCULPTURE.  243 

always  small,  attached  close  to  the  head  and  a  little  flat ;  the 
cartilage,  particularly  that  portion  of  it  called  antihelix,  is 
swoln,  which  narrows  the  opening  of  the  tympanum,  and  is 
marked  with  distinct  ridges.  The  statue  of  Hercules  of  gilt 
bronze  in  the  Capitol,  together  with  six  others  of  marble,  viz., 
those  of  the  Belvedere,  the  villa  Medici,  the  Pallazzo  Mattei, 
the  villa  Borghese,  the  villa  Ludovisi,  and  that  in  the  gardens 
of  the  Borghese  palace,  have  each  of  them  their  ears  formed 
as  above  described.  Some  of  the  fine  antique  statues  repre- 
senting figures  of  Pancratiastes,  which  were  the  works  of 
Myron,  Leochares,  and  other  eminent  sculptors,  as  well  as  the 
fine  one  of  Antolycas,  are  all  characterized  by  this  sort  of  ear. 
The  same  may  be  observed  in  a  colossal  statue  of  Pollux  at 
the  Capitol,  and  in  a  small  figure  of  the  same  hero  at  the  Far- 
nese  palace.  The  right  ear  of  the  pretended  gladiator  of  the 
villa  Borghese  has  this  form,  while  the  left,  which  is  a  restora- 
tion, differs.  The  villa  Albani  possesses  a  fine  statue  of  a  youth- 
ful hero,  with  this  conformation  of  ear ;  which  is  also  observed 
in  one  of  the  Dioscuri  at  the  Capitol,  as  well  as  in  all  those 
which  represent  persons  who  have  been  celebrated  in  gymnastic 
sports,  wrestling,  etc. 

824.  It  is  not  surprising  that  this  characteristic  is  assigned 
to  the  heads  of  Hercules,  when  considered  as  the  founder  of  the 
Olympic  games,  which  he  rendered  celebrated  by  his  feats  of 
address  and  strength.     Winckleman  thinks  it  is  given  to  all 
gymnastic  heroes.      A  fine  colossal  head  of  Hercules,  in   the 
Townely  collection,  exhibits  them  in  great  perfection. 

825.  The  ears  of  Janus,  bacchanals,  and  satyrs,  are  made 
more  or  less  pointed  at  the  superior  extremity,  denoting  various 
degrees  of  animal  propensities. 

826.  Agostiuo  Carracci  considers  the  ear  as  the  most  difficult 
part  to  represent.     He,  therefore,  modeled  one   in  relief  much 
larger  than  nature  as  a  study,  from  which  he  drew  in  every 
variety  of  position.     It  was  from  this  model  that  those  casts 
were  made  that  are  used  in  the  European  Academies. 

827.  The  character  and  expression  of  the  head  depend  much 


244  STUDY  OF  ART. 

upon  the  form  and  position  of  the  ear.  JElian,  in  depicting 
the  beauty  of  Aspasia,  describes  her  ears  as  small  and  well 
shaped.  Large  and  ill-formed  ears  were  considered  deformities. 

OF    THE   FOREHEAD. 

828.  One  of  the  principal  points  of  the  beauty  of  the  face 
consists  in  the  conformation  of  the  forehead,  which  should  above 
all  things  be  low.     Our  own  observation,  in  part,  and  partly 
the  remarks  of  ancient  writers,  teach  us  this ;  a  high  forehead 
was  even  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  ugly.     Yet  a  high  open 
forehead   is  not  ugly,  but  rather  the  reverse.     This,  though 
seemingly  a  contradiction,  is  very  easily  explained.     The  fore- 
head should  be  low  in  youth.     It  generally  is  low  in  the  bloom 
of  life,  before  the  hair  which  covers  it  falls  off,  and  leaves  it 
bare ;  nature  herself  has  endowed  the  age  of  beauty  with  this 
characteristic ;  the  absence  of  it,  therefore,  will  always  detract 
from  the  beauty  of  the  form  of  the  face  ;  it  would,  consequently, 
be  a  violation  of  the  characteristics  of  youth,  to  give  to  it  the 
high,  open  forehead  which  belongs  to  manhood.    We  can  easily 
convince  ourselves  of  this  by  covering  with  the  finger  the  front 
of  a  person  who  has  a  low  forehead;  the  additional  height  thus 
given  to  it  will  show  the  inharmoniousness  of  the  proportion, 
if  I  may  so  express  myself,  and  enable  us  to  understand  on 
what  principle  a  high  forehead  is  unfavorable  to  beauty. 

829.  A  low  forehead  is  so  peculiar  to  the  ideas  which  the 
ancient  artists  had  of  a  beautiful  head,  that  it  is  a  characteristic 
by  which  an  antique  can  frequently  be  distinguished  from  a 
modern  work.* 

OF   THE    EXPRESSION    OF   THE   HUMAN   EYE. 

830.  The  eye  is  the  most  lively  feature  in  the  countenance ; 
the  first  of  our  senses  to  awake,  and  the  last  to  cease  motion. 
It  is  indicative  of  the  higher  and  holier  emotions — of  all  th^se 
feelings  which  distinguish  man  from  the  brutes. 

*  Winckleman 


SCULPTUKE.  245 

831.  A  large  eye  is  not  only  consistent  with  beauty,  but  ne- 
cessary to  it.     The  eye  of  the  eagle,  even  of  the  ox,  is  familiar 
in  the  similes  of  the  poets.     The  Arab  expresses  his  idea  of  a 
woman's  beauty,  by  saying,  that  she  has  the  eye  of  the  gazelle ; 
it  is  the  burden  of  their  songs.     The  timidity,  gentleness,  and 
innocent  fear,  in  the  eye  of  the  deer  tribe,  are  compared  with 
the  modesty  of  a  young  girl.   "  Let  her  be  as  the  loving  hind  and 
pleasant  roe."     In  the  eye  we  look  for  meaning,  for  sentiment, 
for  reproof. 

832.  Do  architects  study  enough,  when  arranging  the  masses 
of  their  buildings  for  effect,  how  the  shadows  will  fall  ?     The 
statuary,  at  all  events  must.     "  The  eye  ought  to  be  sunk,"  says 
Winckleman.     Yes,  relatively  to  the  forehead ;  but  not  in  refer- 
ence to  the  face.     That  would  give  a  very  mean  expression. 
It  is  the  strong  shadow  produced  by  the  projecting  eyebrow, 
which  gives  powerful  effect  to  the  eye,  in  sculpture. 

833.  We  have  said  that  the  eye  indicates  the  holier  emotions. 
In  all  stages  of  society,  and  in  every  clime,  the  posture  and  ex- 
pression of  reverence  have  been  the  same.     The  works  of  the 
great  masters,  who  have  represented  the  more  sublime  passions 
of  man,  may  be  adduced  as  evidences  ;  by  the  upturned  direction 
of  the  eyes,  and  a  correspondence  of  feature  and  attitude,  they 
address  us  in  language  intelligible  to  all  mankind.    The  humble 
posture  and  raised  eyes  are  natural,  whether  in  the  darkened 
chamber,  or  under  the  open  vault  of  heaven. 

834.  On  first  consideration,  it  seems  merely  consistent  that 
when  pious  thoughts  prevail,  man  should  turn  his  eyes  from 
things  earthly  to  purer  thoughts  above.     But  there  is  a  reason 
for  this  which  is  every  way  worthy  of  attention.    When  subject 
to  particular  influences,  the  natural  position  of  the  eye-ball  is 
to  be  directed  upwards.     The  action  is  not  a  voluntary  one,  it 
is  irresistible.     Hence,  in  reverence,  in  devotion,  in  agony  of 
mind,  in  all  sentiments  of  pity,  in  bodily  pain  with  fear  of  death, 
the  eyes  assume  that  position. 

835.  Let  us  explain  by  what  muscles  the  eyes  are  so  re- 
volved.    There  are  two  sets  of  muscles  which  govern  the  mo- 


246  STUDY   OF  ART. 

tions  of  the  eye-ball.  Four  straight  muscles,  attached  at  the 
cardinal  points,  by  combining  their  action,  move  it  in  every 
direction  required  for  vision ;  and  these  muscles  are  subject  to 
the  will.  When  the  straight  muscles,  from  weariness  or  ex- 
haustion, cease  to  guide  the  eye,  two  other  muscles  operate  to 
roll  it  upward  under  the  eye-lid ;  these  are  the  oblique  muscles. 
Accordingly,  in  sleep,  in  fainting,  in  approaching  death,  when 
the  four  voluntary  muscles  resign  their  action,  and  insensibi- 
lity creeps  over  the  retina,  the  oblique  muscles  prevail,  and  the 
pupil  is  revolved,  so  as  to  expose  only  the  white  of  the  eye.  It 
is  so  far  consolatory  to  reflect,  that  the  apparent  agony  indi- 
cated by  the  direction  of  the  eyes,  in  fainting  or  the  approach 
of  death,  is  the  effect  of  encroaching  insensibility — of  objects 
impressed  on  the  nerve  of  vision  being  no  longer  perceived. 

836.  We  thus  see,  that  when  wrapt  in  devotional  feelings, 
and  when   external  impressions  are  unheeded,  the  eyes  are 
raised,  by  an  action  neither  taught  nor  acquired.     It  is  by  this 
instinctive  motion  we  are  all  led  to  bow  with  humility — to  look 
upwards  in  prayer,  and  to  regard  the  visible  heavens  as  the 
seat  of  God : 

"  Prayer  is  the  upward  glancing  of  the  eye, 
When  none  but  God  is  near." 

Although  the  savage  does  not  always  distinguish  God  from 
the  heavens  above  him,  this  direction  of  the  eye  would  appear 
to  be  the  source  of  the  universal  belief  that  the  Supreme  Being 
has  His  throne  above.  The  idolatrous  negro,  in  praying  for  rice 
and  yams,  or  that  he  may  be  active  and  swift,  lifts  up  his  eyes  to 
the  canopy  of  the  sky.  So  in  intercourse  with  God,  although 
we  are  taught  that  our  globe  is  ever  revolving ;  though  religion 
inculcates  that  the  Almighty  is  everywhere,  yet,  under  the 
influence  of  this  position  of  the  eye,  which  is  no  doubt  designed 
for  a  purpose, — we  seek  Him  on  high.  I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes 
unto  the  hills  whence  cometh  my  help.* 

837.  The  eyes,  as  a  component  part  of  beauty,  are  still  more 
essential  than  the  forehead.     In  art,  they  are  to  be  considered 

*  C.  Bell. 


SCULPTURE.  247 

more  in  regard  to  their  form  than  their  color,  because  their 
beauty  does  not  consist  in  the  latter,  but  in  the  former,  which 
is  not  at  all  affected,  whatever  the  color  of  the  iris  may  be. 
"\Vith  respect  to  the  form  of  the  eyes,  generally,  it  is  superfluous 
to  say  that  the  beauty  in  them  is  the  size,  just  as  a  great  light 
is  more  beautiful  than  a  small  one.  But  the  size  of  the  eye 
conforms  to  the  eye-bones,  or  its  socket,  and  is  manifested  by 
the  edge  and  opening  of  the  eyelids,  of  which  the  upper  de- 
scribes a  rounder  curve  towards  the  inner  corner  of  a  beautiful 
eye  than  the  under.* 

OF    THE    MOUTH. 

838.  In  the  face,  the  mouth  is  the  seat  of  expression.     The 
action  of  the  muscles  of  the  eye  and  brow,  like  the  attitude 
of  the  figure,  "  sustains  expression." 

839.  "  Mere  fright  lifts  the  brows ;  terror  and  horror  deep 
and  strong  knit  them ;  rage,  anger,  and  pain  knit  them.     In 
insanity,  the  brows  are  vacantly  raised,  while  a  malignant  sneer 
is  still  visible  in  the  eyes  and  mouth."     This  action   of  the 
muscles  of  the  brows,  being  common  to  the  expression  of  these 
various  emotions,  the  observer  needs  some  guide  in  deciding  by 
what  passion  or  sensation  they  are  excited.     To  determine  this, 
he  must  look  to  the  mouth,  for  'tis  the  action  of  the  muscles  of 
the  mouth  that  indicates  the  true  emotions  excited,  and  that 
gives  the  characteristic  expression  of  the  face  to  which  the 
other  features  contribute.     With  the  knit  brow,  the  teeth  may 
gnash  together  as  in  rage ;  or,  the  lips  be  firmly  compressed  in 
the  effort  to  restrain  emotion,  but  it  is  the  action  of  the  muscles 
of  the  mouth  that  mark  the  feeling  or  passion  excited,  giving 
the  true  and  unequivocal  expression  to  the  face. 

840.  There  is  a  head  of  our  Savior  carved  in  ivory,  which 
at  first  view  attracts  attention  from  the  expression  of  extreme 
suffering  it  exhibits.     Looking  more  closely  we  see  the  crown 
of  thorns,   an   accessory  that  unmistakably  tells    the    subject 

*  Winckleman. 


248  STUDY   OF   ART. 

The  brows  are  closely  knit,  expressive  of  agony.  We  have 
read  that  our  Lord  suffered  much,  and  that  the  crown  of  thorns 
belongs  to  the  last  scenes  of  his  life  on  earth.  But  what  point 
of  time  has  the  artist  chosen  to  express  in  his  work?  There 
is  no  accessory  and  nothing  to  mark  it  until  we  look  at  the 
mouth  so  parched  and  dry,  that  we  seem  almost  to  hear  the 
words—"  I  thirst." 

OF   THE    HAIR. 

841.  The  hair  of  all  sculptured  figures  which  belong  to  a  flour- 
ishing period  of  art  is  curly,  abundant,  and  executed  with  the  ut- 
most diligence.     By  modern  sculptors,  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
scarcely  indicated ;  this  is  a  fault,  especially  in  female  heads. 
Hence  there  is  a  deficiency  of  light  and  shade  in  this  part,  for  light 
and  shade  cannot  be  produced  where  the  grooves  are  superficial. 
One  of  the  reasons  why  so  little  labor  has  been  bestowed  upon  the 
hair  by  modern  artists  might  seem  to  be  that  in  appearance  it 
comes  nearer  to  the  reality  when  represented  either  as  smooth  or 
confined  in  a  mass ;  still,  on  the  other  hand,  art  requires  even 
such  hair  to  be  disposed  in  deep  curves.     The  heads  of  the 
Amazons,  on  which  there  are  no  curls,  may  serve  as  models  in 
this  particular.     With  the  ancient  Greek  sculptors  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  hair  was  made  expressive  of  character. 

EXPRESSION    OF   ATTITUDE. 

842.  The  passions  and  even  the  sentiments  are  often  most 
strongly  expressed  in  the  attitude.     To  represent  the  many 
variations  of  attitude,  requires  consummate  skill  in  the  artist, 
because  the  indication  of  the  impulse  excited,  often  depends  on 
so  slight  a  turn  of  the  figure,  perhaps  the  head  only,  or  a  hand. 
To  represent  the  effect  of  those  slight  emotions  upon  the  physi- 
cal frame,  characterized  by  the  more  delicate  shades  of  senti- 
ment and  feeling  that  none  can  define,  is  more  difficult  than 
marking  the  influence  of  the  stronger  passions.     To   accom- 
plish it  well,  shows  a  mastery  in  the  essential  requisites  of  art. 
See  chapter  on  Expression  (§  378). 


SCULPTURE.  249 

843.  In  works  of  art,  sitting  on  the  ground  is  a  posture  that 
denotes  deep  misery  and  distress.   "  On  several  coins  of  Vespa- 
sian and  Titus,  Judea   Cttpta  is  represented  in  this  posture, 
denoting  sorrow  and  captivity.     The  Psalmist  describes  the 
Jews  lamenting  their  captivity  in  the  same  pensive  posture,  and 
Judea  as  a  woman  in  sorrow  sitting  on  the  ground,  in  a  passage 
of  the   prophet  that  foretells  the  very  captivity  recorded  in  this 
medal." 

844.  Standing  with  one  hand  crossed  over  the  other,  is   an 
expression  of  servitude.     Captive  kings  are  sometimes  repre- 
sented in  this  position. 

845.  In  one  of  the  Panathenaic  processions,  on  a  frieze  of 
the  Parthenon,  there  are  fifteen  figures  represented  as  walking, 
followed  by  a  chariot.     The  Canephoros  or  leader  evidently 
impressed  with   the   importance  of  her  office,  advances   with 
grave  dignity.     The   movements  of  those  that  directly  follow, 
partake  of  the  same  character,  which  gradually  changes  from 
this  marked  gravity  to  greater  freedom  of  motion,  in  proportion 
to  the  distance  of  each  one  from  the  leader.     The   variation  of 
attitude  admitted  by  this  arrangement,  and  which  is  perfectly 
true  to  nature,  destroys  the  formality  that  would  mark  the  line, 
if  each  one  from  the  first  to  the  last,  moved  with  the  same 
measured  precision. 

846.  Some  ancient  statues,  seem  in  the  attitude  to  express 
physical  strength  and  skill  only.     In  the  statue  of  the  fighting 
gladiator,  so  called,  is  it  not  probable  that  some  person  is  com- 
memorated who  excelled  all  others  in  feats  of  skill  ?  who  had 
become  not  only  ambi-dextrous,  but  had  also  acquired  perfect 
control  over  every  muscle  and  joint  of  his  frame  ?   The  attitude 
in  which  he  is  represented  it  seems  impossible  to  maintain,  yet, 
with  the  importance  that  the  ancient  Greeks  attached  to  the 
exercises  of  their  games,  their  wonderful  feats  of  skill,  and  the 
emulation  of  the  competitors  to  excel,  they  would  not  be  likely 
to  admit  that  complete  muscular  force  was  limited  to  the  right 
side  of  the  body.     In  the  cultivation  of  all  abilities,  physical  as 
well  as  mental,  it  was  evidently  a  principle  with  them  to  aim 


250  STUDY   OF  ART. 

at  the  highest  point  of  development.  Hence  their  attempts  to 
accomplish  feats  the  most  difficult,  as  well  as  the  completion 
that  characterizes  the  result  of  all  their  pursuits  and  efforts. 

DRAPING    STATUES. 

847.  The  question  is  sometimes  asked,  whether  it  should  be 
done  at  all  ? — or,  if,  in  doing  it,  the  artist  should  adopt  the  cos- 
tume of  the  day  ? 

848.  In  every  department  of  art,  the  ancient  Greek  sculptors 
were  governed  by  some  law  or  principle,  and  without  appeal 
can  be  made  to  some  law  or  principle,  all  questions  of  taste 
must  ever  remain  open  to  discussion.     Their  principle  in  regard 
to  drapery  was,  that  it  was  intended  to  cover  the  figure  without 
concealing  it.     Nothing  more  effectually  conceals  the  figure 
than  the  fashions  of  the  day.     They  are  designed  for  that  pur- 
pose.    In  erecting  a  statue  of  a  distinguished  individual,  the 
object  is  to  immortalize  his  character.     By  adopting  the  fashion 
of  the  time  that  was  common  to  his  contemporaries,  that  is  also 
immortalized,  or  perpetuated  as  long  as  the  statue  stands,  and 
the  object  of  the  work,  in  regard  to  the  individual  represented, 
is  entirely  destroyed.     Draped  according  to  any  local  custom 
(for  dress  is  not  drapery)  a  statue  representing  any  individual 
who    has    become    distinguished,   either   as   a   warrior,   hero 
or  poet,  becomes  a  permanent  "show-block,"  and  serves  but 
one  purpose,  that  of  exhibiting  the  fashion  peculiar  to  his  time. 
This  was  nothing  of  his  own  invention  ;  expresses  nothing  char- 
acteristic, and  the  individual  use  of  it,  only  showed  that  in  re- 
gard to  dress  the  subject  of  the  work  had  conformed  to  the  pe- 
culiar modes  of  his  day.     The  general  rules  for  drapery  are 
given  from  (§  418  to  426). 

849.  Figures,  however  beautiful,  should  seldom  be  repre- 
sented without  drapery.      Among  the  antique  statues,  there 
are  but  few  found  entirely  nude ;  and  in  these,  the  character 
and  attitude  is  such  as  to  make  the  exception  pardonable,  (iv) 


SCULPTURE.  251 


COMPOSITION.* 

850.  The  Greek  poets  conducted  their  works  on  a  plan  of 
composition  which  equally  governs  painting  and  sculpture. 

851.  Homer's  Iliad  is  a  whole,  united  in  its  parts,  and  varied 
by  gradation. 

852.  The  sentiment  throughout  is  wrath,  beginning  with  the 
dissension  of  the  kings,  continued  by  the  vengeance  of  the  Tro- 
jans, and  ended  by  the  destruction  of  Troy's  hope  and  bulwark 
in  the  death  of  Hector.     The  characters  have  a  varied  indivi- 
duality. 

853.  Achilles  is  the  hero  who,  like  the  sun,  enlightens  and 
heats  all  by  the  blaze  of  his  presence ;  his  absence  is  darkness 
and  dismay. 

854.  There  is  the  same  unity  in  connection  and  gradation  of 
characters  and  circumstances  to  be  found  in  the  Prometheus  of 
-^schylus. 

855.  Vulcan,  Force  and  Strength ;  Mercury,  Ocean  and  the 
Nymphs  are  but  contingents  to  the  adamantine  spirit  of  Pro- 
metheus, whom  the  threats  of  Jupiter  could  not  move,  nor  con- 
vulsions of  the  universe  terrify :  the  interest  is  in  him,  to  which 
the  ministering  violence,  admonition,  consolation,  or  tendency 
of  the  inferior  characters,  gives  subordinate  relation. 

856.  Principles  of  composition  require  that  the  story  should 
be  a  perfect  whole,  and  that  one  character  should  be  supreme, 
to  which  all  the  inferiors  should  have  some  relation  by  connec- 
tion   or    separation.      The  individual  variety   of  character   is 
equally  in  the  order  of  nature. 

857.  Aristotle  and  Horace  in  their  "Arts  of  Poetry,"  (be- 
sides the  above  mentioned)  propose  various  rules,  which  equally 
govern  the  poet,  painter  and  sculptor ;  and  that  no  doubt  may 
be  entertained  concerning  the  practice  of  the  ancient  artists, 
Horace  tells  us  that  "  the  poet  and  painter  are  regulated  by  the 
same  principles." 

*  From  Flaxman's  Lee.  on  Sculpture. 


252  STUDY   OF   ART. 

858.  For  the  sake  of  clearness,  the  rules  of  composition  shall 
be  given  under  distinct  heads. 

859.  First,  a  poet  speaks  by  words.     The  painter  and  sculp- 
tor by  action.     Action  singly,  or  in  series : — the  subject  of  com- 
position being  comprised  in  the  arts  of  design ;  thus  the  story 
of  Laocoon  is  told  by  the  agony  of  the  father  and  sons,  inextri- 
cably wound  about  in  the  folds  of  serpents. 

860.  The  anger  of  Achilles  is  shown  by  drawing  his  sword 
on  Agamemnon  in  the  council  of  the  kings.     And  every  action 
is  more  perfect  as  it  comprehends  an  indication  of  the  past, 
with  a  certainty  of  the  end,  in  the  moment  chosen. 

861.  Annanias  falling  in  the  contraction  of  death  at  the  feet 
of  Peter,  proves  a  divine  authority  in  the  apostle's  rebuke, 
whilst  Sapphira,  counting  the  silver,  leads  to  the  nature  of  his 
offence.     (See  Raphael's  Cartoon,) 

862.  In  the  group  of  Heman  and  Antigone,  he  supports  the 
expiring  woman,  whilst  he  kills  himself  with  the  same  sword 
which  slew  her,  showing  his  death  to  be  a  consequence  of  hers. 

863.  Expression  distinguishes  species  of  action  in  the  whole 
and  in  all  the  parts ;  in  the  faces,  figures,  limbs  and  extremi- 
ties.    Whether  the  story  be  heroic,  grave,  or  tender,  it  is  the 
very  soul  of  composition — it  animates  its  character  and  grada- 
tions, as  the  human  soul  doth  the  body  and  limbs — it  engages 
the  attention,  and  excites  an  interest  which  compensates  for  a 
multitude  of  defects— whilst  the  most  admirable  execution,  with- 
out a  just  and  lively  expression,  will  be  disregarded  as  labori- 
ous inanity,  or  contemned  as  an  illusory  endeavor  to  impose  on 
the  feelings  and  the  understanding. 

864.  The  general  forms  of  masses  in  composition  have  been 
enumerated  and  ably  described  by  the  professor  of  painting ; 
but  as  these  particularly  concerned  the  sculptor,  whose  whole 
study  is  form,  a  repetition  will  not  be  useless. 

865.  The  forms  are  the  pyramid  erect,  inverted,  or  lateral, 
the  circle  and  the  oval ;  they  may  be  radiated  and  the  whole 
will  have  a  flame-like  undulation  in  effect,  from  the  ever-vary- 


SCULPTURE.  253 

ing  succession  of  curves  in  the  outline  and  action  of  the  human 
figure. 

866.  The  parts  will  be  more  simple  and  rectilinear  in  repose, 
more  angular  in  violent  action,  and  partaking  of  gentle  curves 
when  the  subject  is  tender,  and  the  person  elegant :  when  the 
limbs  are  entwined  as  struggling,  or  in  any  sympathetic  act 
either  of  force  or  tenderness,  the  joints,  the  general  curves  and 
views  of  the  limbs  should  never  be  exactly  and  mechanically 
the  same,  but  partake  of  the  wonderful  variety  of  nature,  in 
which  all  faces,  all  bodies,  and  all  efforts  are  different.     This 
gives  life  and  motion. 

867.  What  has  been  said  above,  is  equally  applicable  to  the 
group  or  basso-relievo,  but    the  application   must  be  accom- 
modated to  the  subject.     The  entire  group  is  independent  of 
back-ground,  and  that  additional  contrast  or  effect  produced  by 
the  adjunction  of  secondary  figures  arid  objects ;  it  is  one  whole, 
whose  idea  is  perfect  and  action  satisfactory  in  itself;  it  is  to 
be  seen  in  every  view,  and  each  view  must  exhibit  a  different 
group  preserving  a  succession  of  beautiful  forms  and  distinct 
lines  without  impairing  the  energy  of  sentiment. 

868.  The  basso-relievo  may  be  considered  in  effect  as  a 
picture  without  coloring,  whose  back-ground  is  light,  a  little 
subdued,  the  figures  thereon   being  chiefly  of  the  middle  tint, 
with  touches  of  strong  dark  in  the  depths,  and  bright  lights  on 
the  higher  projections.     This  species  of  sculpture  is  not  in- 
tended to  be  seen  in  many  views  like  the  entire  group,  but  it 
has  this  advantage,  that  more  groups  than  one  may  be  on  the 
same  back-ground,  and  sometimes  a  succession  of  events  in  the 
same  story ;  a  greater  force  is  given  to  harmony,  or  contrast 
of  lines,  by  the  number  of  groups  and  figures  as  well  as  the 
projection  of  their  shadows. 

869.  The  ancients,  who  considered  simplicity  as  a  charac- 
teristic of  perfection,  represented  stories  by  a  single  row  of 
figures  in  the  bas-relief,  by  which  the  whole  outline  of  the 
figure  or  group,  the  energy  of  action,  the  concatenation  of 
limbs,  the  flight  or  flow  of  drapery  were  seen  with  little  inter- 


254:  STUDY    OF  ART. 

ruption ;  but  there  are  instances  of  the  best  times  in  low 
relievo,  where  many  horsemen  are  advancing  before  each  other, 
the  nearer  horse  hiding  the  hinder  parts  of  the  preceding,  and 
sometimes  part  of  the  rider,  without  causing  the  least  confusion 
of  effect,  as  in  the  frieze  from  the  temple  of  Minerva  in  Lord 
Elgin's  collection. 

870.  There  are  noble  examples  also,  of  groups  and  figures 
rushing  in  the  same  reiterated  line  through  the  composition ; 
but  even  in  basso-relievo,  it  must  be  remembered,  the  work  is 
sculpture,  which  allows  no  picturesque  addition  or  effect  of  back- 
ground ;  the  story  must  be  told,  and  the  field  occupied  by  the 
figure  and  acts  of  man. 

871.  All  art,  as  the  imitation  of  nature,  must  be  allied  by 
the  same  relations,  and  submit  to  the  same  laws  which  govern 
nature  itself:  thus,  a  certain  view  of  the  human  figure  is  most 
fit  to  express  its  spring  and  motion  in  running  or  striking,  and 
consequently  the  quantity  of   the  figure  seen  in   that  view; 
another  quantity  will  more  properly  belong  to  a  different  ex- 
ertion or  repose. 

872.  The  story  may  require  that  the  upper  part  of  one 
figure  should  be  principal,  whilst,  perhaps,  the  lower  parts  are 
concealed  by  an   intervening    object;    some    figures  may  be 
running  in  different  directions,  more  crowded,  or  separate.     To 
regulate  these  spaces  and  qualities  harmoniously,  concerns  the 
sculptor  in  his  composition,  equally  with  the  poet  or  musician 
in  theirs.     This  is  to  be  done  by  the  same  means  according  to 
different  modes   of  manifestation,  and  the  thirds,  fifths,  and 
eighths,  with  their  subdivisions,  taken  by  gross   calculation  in 
the  arts  of  design,  not  exact  measurement,  Mill  produce  the 
same  agreeable  effect  in  lines,  light  and  shadow,  space  and  the 
arrangement  of  colors,  as  is  produced  by  similar  quantities  in 
music. 

873.  One  simple  instance  only  shall  be  given  of  opposition, 
and  another  of  harmony,  in  lines  and  quantities :  two   equal 
curves,  set  with  either  their  convex  or  concave  faces  to  each 
other,  produce  opposition ;  but  unite  two  curves  of  different 


SCULPTURED  255 

size  and    segment,  they  will   produce   that   harmonious  line, 
termed  graceful,  in  the  human  figure. 

874.  Concerning  the  quantity  of  light  and  shadow  in  a  group, 
if  the  light  be  one-third,  and  shadow  two-thirds,  the  effect  will 
be  bold.     If  the  light  be  one  part,  and  the  shade  four,  the  light 
will  be  bolder,  and  accord  with  a  tragic  or  terrific  action ;  but 
the  more  general  effect  of  sculpture  is  two-thirds  of  light  on 
the  middle  of  the  group,  with  a  small  proportion  of  very  dark 
shadow  in  the  deeper  hollows. 

875.  An  attention  to  the  materials  of  sculpture  will  naturally 
lead  us  to  the  description  of  its  legitimate  subjects.     The  gray 
solemn  tints  of  stone,  the  beautiful  semi-transparent  purity  of 
marble,  the  golden  splendor,  or  corroding  darkened  green  of 
bronze,  reject  as  incongruous  all  subjects  and  characters  which 
have  not  some  dignity  of  elevation. 

876.  The  awful  simplicity  of  those  forms  whose  eyes  have 
neither  color  nor  brilliancy,  and  whose  limbs  have  not  the  glow 
of  circulation,  strikes  the  first  view  of  the  beholder  as  being  of 
a  different  order  from  himself. 

877.  Angels,  spiritual  ministers,  embodied  virtues,  departed 
worthies,  the  patriot  or  general  benefactor,  shining  in  the  splen- 
dor of  his  deeds,  or  gloomy  and  consuming  memorials  of  the 
great   in   former    ages — such     subjects     distinguish    temples, 
churches,  palaces,  courts  of  justice,  and  the  open  squares  of 
cities.     At  the  same  time  that  they  symbolize  their  several 
purposes,  they  may  be  comprehended  in  the  three  classes  of 
sublime,  heroic,  and  tender. 

878.  The  sublime  represents  all  supernatural  acts  and  ap- 
pearances, such  as  assemblies  of  the  gods,  or  falls  of  the  giants, 
etc.     In  the  higher  class  of  subjects  are  the  different  arts  of 
creation,  the  Angels  appearing  to  the  Shepherds,  the  Transfigu- 
ration, the  Ascension,  and  the  Judgment. 

879.  In  this  class  can  be  nothing  common  in  idea,  person,  or 
action ;  the  idea,  whether  simple  or  complex,  must  be  such  as 
cannot  be  seen  in  nature ;  the  beauty  and  dignity  of  the  persons 


256  STUDY  OF  ART. 

should  be  more  than  human,  and  the  action,  whether  forcible  or 
pathetic,  should  be  action  in  its  essence. 

880.  Of  the  heroic  class  of  compositions,  we  may  account 
the  battles  of  the  Athenians  and  Amazons,  and  of  the  Atheni- 
ans and  Persians,  in  the  temples  of  Minerva  and  Theseus  at 
Athens,  and  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Phigaleia,  with  such  sub- 
jects as  the  story  of  Orestes,  and  the  death  of  Egysthus,  in  the 
ancient  basso-relievos. 

881.  Of  the  tender  or  pathetic,  are  the  death  of  Meleager, 
Antiope  comforted  by  Zethus  and  Amphion ;  to  which  may  be 
added,  such  Christian  subjects  as  Michael  Angelo's  Holy  Family 
and  Charity :  for  although  these  two  last  are  paintings,  their 
compositions  are  so  perfectly  sculptural,  that  they  may,  without 
impropriety,  be  admitted  into  the  present  arrangement. 

882.  Another  class  of  subjects  may  be  observed  among  the 
ancient  basso-relievos,  from  the  prevalence  of  elegant  female 
figures  in  the  pageants  of  marine  divinities,  or  in  the  festive 
choruses. 

883.  The  characteristics  of  Grecian  composition  in  the  best 
ages,  are  simplicity  and   distinctness,  in  all  the  examples  of 
painting  that  have  come  down  to  us.     Where  the  subject  does 
not  require  much  action,  it  is  told  by  gentle  movements,  and 
the  figures,  whether  grouped  or  single,  have  a  sufficient  portion 
of  plain  back-ground  left  about  them,  to  show  the  general  lines 
with  the  forms  of  the  limbs  and  draperies  perfectly  intelligible. 

884.  Where  complication  and  force  of  action  may  be  required, 
it  is  done  with  a  grace  of  concatenation  which  adds  continuity 
to  the  act,  without  causing  it  to  be  less  distinct.     And  in  such 
as  are  all  agitation  and  violence,  the  force  of  striking,  the  rush 
of  flight,  the  agony  of  dying,  and  the  prostration  of  the  dead,  in 
which  union  of  action  is  enforced  by  repetition,  and  difference 
of  situation  by  contrast, — still  the  same  distinctness  is  pre- 
served. 

885.  In  the  great  compositions  of  modern  times,  the  Last 
Judgment  of  Michael  Angelo,  and  the  Fall  of  the  Angels  by 
Rubens,  there  are  multitudes  and  legions  in  comparison  with 


SCULPTURE.  257 

the  separate  figures  and  single  groups  in  the  most  considerable 
of  the  ancient  works.  The  beholder  is  thunder-struck  by  an- 
gels falling  in  groups  and  forked  masses,  amalgamating  in  the 
vivid  Hashes,  and  darkening  in  the  sulphurous  smoke,  in  the 
various  dismay,  horror,  terror,  and  torpor  of  deadened  intellect, 
in  their  lost  condition.  In  this  picture  the  undulation  of  groups, 
the  play  of  lines,  the  entwining  of  limbs,  and  the  breadth  and 
quantities  of  light  and  shade  may  be  studied  by  the  painter  and 
sculptor  with  equal  advantage. 

886.  The  Last  Judgment,  by  Michael  Angelo,  is,  however,  a 
more  consummate  work,  and  the  parent  from  which  The  Fall 
of  the  Angels  derived  its  being. 

887.  If  the  Judgment  is  inferior  to  the  Falling  Angels  in 
general  effect — in  the  breadth  of  light  and  shade — the  strength 
of  approaching  parts — the  gradual  distance  of  those  which  re- 
treat, by  diffusion  of  middle  tint  and  the  vivid  variegations  of 
reflex,  it  is  superior  in  the  sublimity  and  extent  of  character 
and  action — in  the  gradations  of  sentiment  and  passion,  from 
exalted  beatitude  to  the  abyss  of  hopeless  destruction — in  the 
kinds  and  species  of  these  degrees — in  relations  to  the  theolo- 
gical and  cardinal  virtues,  opposed  to  the  seven  deadly  sins — in 
force  of  conception — in  uncommon  original,  distinct  and  fit  ap- 
propriation in  the  groups  or  separate  figures,  the  sentiment  of 
particular  figures  and  groups  is  in  the  whole,  and  all  the  parts, 
penetrating,  sympathetic,  and  true. 

888.  Despair  plunges  headlong  and  downwards,  the  fall  of 
the   contentious  is  aided  by  strife  and  blows,  the  malignant 
drawn  downwards  by  the  fiends,  is  tormented  in  his  way  by  the 
biting  serpent ;  for  some  there  is  a  terrific  contest  between  angels 
and  infernals. 

889.  Among  the   happy,  brotherly  love  is  evident   among 
three  figures  that  shoot  upwards  together,  whose  faces,  seen  a 
little  beyond  each  other,  appear  to  be  reflections  of  the  same 
self;   several  rise  to  the  heavenly  regions  by  the  attractions  of 
purity,  piety,  and  charity. 

890.  In  this  stupendous  work,  in  addition  to  the  genius  of 


258  STUDY   OF  ART. 

the  mighty  master,  the  mechanical  powers  and  movements  of 
the  figure,  its  anatomical  energy  and  fbrms  are  shown  by  such 
perspective  of  the  most  difficult  positions,  as  surpass  any  exam- 
ples left  by  the  ancients  on  a  flat  surface  or  low  relief,  and  are 
only  to  be  equaled  in  kind,  but  not  in  proportion  to  the  appli- 
cation, in  the  front  and  diagonal  views  of  the  Laocoon,  and  all 
the  views  of  the  Boxers,  which  are  both  entire  groups. 

891.  By  such  observations  on  these  works,  so  far  as  compo- 
sition and  design  are  common  to  the  sister  arts,  the  sculptor 
perceives  the  scope  and  power  of  his  own  art. 

892.  It  is  true,  that  sublime  and  extensive  works  are  seldom 
required  in  the  slow  and  difficult  process  of  sculpture ;  but  he 
who  loves  the  honorable  exercise  of  his  art,  and  the  intellectual 
delight  of  worthy  exertion,  will  endeavor  to  prepare  himself 
for   all  difficulties;   besides,  the  combinations  and  particular 
groups  will  be  more  or  less  concerned  in  the  studies  of  every 
day;  and  as  the  electric  fluid  pervades  all  matter,  so  the  same 
spirit  and  principles  which  inform  these  works,  penetrate  the 
whole  study  of  the  human  figure. 

893.  The  lines  of  Grecian  composition  enchant  the  beholder 
by  their  harmony  and  perfection,  and  this  portion  of  study 
seems  to  have  been  highly  approved  by  Pamphilus,  the  learned 
Macedonian  painter,  who  denied  that  any  one  could  succeed  in 
the  study  of  painting  without  arithmetic  and  geometry.     The 
application  of  these  two  sciences  is  very  evident  in  the  arts  of 
design :  by  arithmetic,  the  proportions  of  the  human  figure  and 
other  animals  are  reckoned,  and  the  quantities  of  bodies,  super- 
ficies, or  light  and  shade  ascertained ;  geometry  gives  lines  and 
diagrams  for  the  motion,  outline,  and  drapery  of  the  figure,  re- 
gulated by  the  harmony  of  agreeable  proportions,  or  the  oppo- 
sition of  contrast.     The  effect  is  evident  in  the  groups  of  the 
Laocoon  and  the  Boxers,  the  bas-relief  of  the  Niobe  family, 
and  that  of  the  rape  of  Proserpine ;  but  this  magic  bond  of 
arrangement  was  utterly  lost  when  other  perfections  of  Grecian 
genius  were  overwhelmed   in   barbarism,  nor  in    any  degree 
recovered  until  late  in  the  resurrection  of  the  arts,  and  then 


SCULPTURE.  259 

they  were  reproduced  by  the  same  means  which  had  discovered 
them. 

894.  The  study  of  geometry  became  more  general,  and  had 
been  applied  with  more  success  to  the  improvement  of  science 
and  art,  after  the  learned  Greeks,  who  fled  from  Constantinople, 
settled  in  Italy. 

895.  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Michael  Angelo  were  greedy 
partakers  in  this  abundant  harvest  of  knowledge.      Michael 
Angelo  showed  his  sensibility  to  the  play  of  lines  in  his  picture 
of  the  Holy  Family,  in  which  the  Virgin  sitting  on  the  ground 
receives  the  infant  Jesus,  whom  Joseph,  stooping  behind,  pre- 
sents over  the  right  shoulder. 

896.  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  who  had  devoted  much  time  to 
mechanical  and  geometrical  studies,  composed  the  Contest  for 
the  Standard,  intended  to  be  painted  in  the  great  hall  of  the  old 
palace  of  Florence.     This  was  indeed  a  prodigy  in  modern 
achievement,  and  the  first  great  example  of  complicated  group- 
ing since  the  arts  flourished  in  ancient  Greece. 

897.  Michael  Angelo's  mind  seems  at  this  time  to  have  been 
employed  on  the  powers,  forms,  and  views  of  the  human  figure 
singly,  and  perhaps  the  admirable  groups  in  the  ceiling — and 
Last  Judgment  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  were  the  consequence  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci's  example.     We  are  sure  the  several  hunts 
of  the   lions,  hippopotamus,  and  crocodile,  were    painted   by 
Rubens  in  emulation,  if  not  in  imitation  of  Leonardo's  Battle 
of  the   Standard ;  and  such  is  their  merit,  that  in  them  you 
see  the  men  strike,  the  horses  kick,  wild  animals  roaring,  turn 
and  rend  their  hunter,  with  a  grandeur  of  lines  equal  to  the 
vivacity  of   action   and   passion.      In   comparing   these    with 
similar  subjects  in  ancient  basso-relievos,  particularly  with  those 
on  the  arch  of  Constantine,  in  which  Trajan  hunts  the  lion  and 
boar,  modern  genius   shines   with   uncommon  brilliancy,  and 
Trajan  with  his  followers,   and  the  animals  they  attack,  are 
tame,  insipid,  and  unnatural. 

898.  In   comparing  ancient    and  modern    compositions,  we 
shall   find   the    systems  and   moral   habits  of  the  times  and 


260  STUDY   OF  ART. 

countries.  The  Greeks  admired,  encouraged,  cultivated  per- 
sonal beauty  by  gymnastic  exercises  and  public  rewards  in  the 
Olympian  meeting  of  the  states ;  consequently,  what  they 
admired,  they  represented.  The  most  choice  selections  of 
countenance  and  form,  the  most  elegant  display  in  the  folds  of 
drapery,  was  seen  in  their  councils  of  divinities ;  in  combats 
and  heroic  adventures,  grace,  elasticity  of  action  and  personal 
courage,  were  conspicuous. 

899.  The  modern  arts  have  been  more  zealously  employed 
to  commemorate  the  acts  and  events  of  that  dispensation  which 
governs  their  conduct,  and  determines  their  future  condition ; 
and  even  in  their  celebrations  and  memorials  of  political  occur- 
rences, or  private  characters,  they  are  always  combinations  of 
the  moral  virtues,  or  the  influences  of  providential  direction. 
What  has  been  done,  and  what  may  be  done  from  such  subjects, 
is  proved  by  Michael  Angelo's   Old  Testament,  and  Judgment, 
in  the  Sistine  Chapel — the  Calling  of  Paul,  and  the  Martyrdom 
of  Peter,  in  the  Pauline  Chapel — the  Plagues  in  the  last  days 
of  the  Church,  by  Signorelli,  in  the  Cathedral  of  Orvieto — the 
Cartoons  of  Raphael — the  scriptural  basso-relievos  by  John 
and  Nicholas  Pisani,  Donatello,  and  Lorenzo  Ghiberti.     These 
subjects  are  more  than  sufficient  to  employ  the  greatest  human 
powers,  comprehending  whatever  is  most  sublime  or  beautiful 
in   energy   or   repose — most    tender,   most   affectionate,   most 
forcible,  or  most  terrific. 

900.  An  additional  distinction  between  the  subjects  of  ancient 
and  modern  composition  is  occasioned  by  parental  affection,  and 
domestic  charities,  being  cherished  in  the  Christian  dispensation 
much  more  powerfully  than  in  the   Grecian  codes :  to  these 
graces  of  benevolence  we  owe  those  lovely  groups,  the  Holy 
Families  of  Eaphael  and  Corregio,  and  the  Charity  of  Michael 
Angelo,  unequaled  by  any  ancient  composition   of   a  mother 
and  children,  and  one  of  the  finest  groups  in  existence. 

901.  In  a  discourse  on  the   composition  of  sculpture,  some 
observations  may  be  expected  on  sepulchral  monuments  and 
equestrian  statues ;  but  little  need  be  said  concerning  them  at 


SCULPTURE.  261 

present,  because  the  sculptor  capable  of  producing  a  fine  group, 
or  alto-relievo  of  three  or  more  figures,  need  only  limit  the 
compass  of  his  powers,  or  submit  them  to  architectural  arrange- 
ments, and  he  will  execute  either  one  or  the  other  without 
difficulty.  Two  or  three  examples  will  be  sufficient :  A  monu- 
ment to  Sir  Francis  Vere — Westminster  Abbey — the  Tomb 
of  Madame  Langhan — and  Michael  Angelo's  design  for  Julius 
II.'s  monument.  Remember,  that  the  entire  group,  and  the  alto 
or  basso-relievo,  are  the  only  legitimate  sculpture. 

902.  All  those  monuments  of  the  later  Italian  shool,  in  which 
entire  figures  are  mingled  with  those  of  low  relief  on  pyrami- 
dal back-grounds,  are   mean  attempts  to  unite  the  effects  and 
perspective  of  painting,  with  the  force  and  severity  of  sculp- 
ture, as  ineffectual  as  injudicious,  and  as  they  partake  in  the 
qualities  of  both  arts,  cannot  properly  be  ranked  in  either. 

903.  The  sculptor  must  not  forget  that  his  art  is  limited  in 
comparison  with  painting:  colors  and  effects  are  beyond  his 
bound ;  whether  the  art  he  represents  was  performed  in  the 
bright  mid-day  sunshine  or  the  darkness  of  midnight,  concerns 
him  not,  his  forms  must  be  equally  perfect,  and  his  expression 
equally  decided.     Even  basso-relief,  a  tree  or  two,  some  rude 
stone,  a  flat  column,  or  a  wall,  slightly  marked  in  the  back- 
ground, must  indicate  a  forest,  a  mountain,  or  a  palace,  with- 
out detailing  a  portrait  of  their  component  parts.     Such  are  the 
limits  which  circumscribe  the  sculptor ;  but  it  is  a  limitation  by 
which  he  is  in  a  measure  delivered  from  the  restraints  of  time 
and  space,  which  strengthen  his  powers  by  concentration,  and 
by  which  he  is  privileged  to  disregard  inferior  objects  for  the 
human  figure,  the  most  perfect  of  all  forms,  with  all  gradations 
of  intelligence,  affection,  sentiment,  action,  or  passion,  capable 
of  being  expressed  in  it,  individually  or  in  numbers,  and  in  the 
different  orders  of  being,  from  the  exalted  supernatural  agent 
to  the  lower  gradations  which  terminate  in  brutal  nature. 

904.  What  has  been  delivered  comprises  some  of  the  rules 
for   composing,  and  observations  on  composition,  the  most  ob- 
vious, and   perhaps   not   the  least  useful.      They  have  been 

10* 


262  STUDY   OF  ART. 

collected  from  the  best  works  and  the  best  writings,  examined 
and  compared  with  their  principles  in  nature.  Such  a  compre- 
hensive view  may  be  useful  to  the  younger  student,  in  pointing 
his  way,  preventing  error,  and  showing  the  needful  materials ; 
but,  after  all,  he  must  perform  the  work  himself!  All  rules,  all 
critical  discourses,  can  but  awaken  the  intelligence,  and  direc- 
tions for  a  beginning  of  that  which  is  to  be  done.  They  may 
be  compared  to  the  scaffolding  for  raising  a  magnificent  palace ; 
it  is  neither  the  building  nor  the  decoration,  but  it  is  the  work- 
man's indispensable  help  in  erecting  the  walls  which  enclose  the 
apartments,  and  which  may  afterwards  be  enriched  with  the 
most  splendid  ornaments. 

905.  Every  painter  and  sculptor  feels  conviction  that  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  science  is  requisite  to  the  productions  of 
liberal  art ;  but  he  will  be   equally  convinced  that  whatever  is 
produced  from  principles   and  rules  only,  added  to  the  most 
exquisite  manual  labor,  is  no  more  than  a  mechanical  work. 
Sentiment  is  the  life  and  soul  of  fine  art !  without,  it  is  all  a 
dead  letter !     Sentiment  gives  a  sterling  value,  an  irresistible 
charm,  to  the  rudest  imagery  or  most  unpracticed  scrawl.     By 
this  quality  a  firm  alliance  is  formed  with  the  affections  in  all 
works  of  art.     With  an  earnest  watchfulness  for  their  preser- 
vation, we  are  made  to  perceive  and  feel  the  most  sublime  and 
terrific  subjects,  following  the  course  of  sentiment  through  the 
current  and  mazes  of  intelligence  and  passion  to  the  most  deli- 
cate and  tender  ties  and  sympathies  of  affection;  the  benign 
exertions  of  spiritual  natures;    the  tremendous  fall  of  rebel 
angels  or  Titans  ;  the  immovable  fortitude  or  contending  energy 
of  patriotism ;  the  sincerity  of  friendship,  and  the  irresistible 
harmony  of  connubial,  maternal,  fraternal,  and  filial  love. 

906.  Such  effects  are  produced  by  the  artist's  own  choicest 
feelings  and  faculties,  embodied  and  enforced  by  the  uninter- 
rupted and  constant  observation  and  imitation  of  whatever  is 
strikingly  excellent  in  nature 


SCULPTURE.  263 

CHOICE    AND    TREATMENT    OF    SUBJECT. 

907.  In  deciding  on  a  subject  for  composition,  the  sculptor 
must  carefully  consider  whether  it  is  suited  to  the  requirements 
of  his  art,  which  forbids  the  representation  of  figures  in  action. 
The  very  word  statue  implies  that.   All  sculptured  figures  must 
be  in  repose.     The  ancient  Greek  sculptors  carefully  observed 
this  principle.     The  merits  of  the  group  of  the  Laocoon,  the 
grandest  work  of  antiquity  that  has  reached  our  own  time,  can- 
not be  perfectly  understood  without  regarding  this  rule  of  plastic 
art. 

908.  By  carefully  observing  the  figures,  we  find  that  the 
artist  has  chosen  the  only  moment  of  repose  amid  the  most 
powerful  struggle  that  can  be  conceived.    By  referring  to  Bell's 
article  on  expression,  and  his  remarks  on  the  insensibility  pro- 
duced by  intense  agony  and  its  effect  upon  the  muscles  of  the 
eye,  this  statue  is  best  understood.    (§  834-836.)    The  momen- 
tary insensibility  occasioned  by  the  intense  agony  of  the  father, 
when  the  pupil  is  revolved  so  as  to  expose  only  the  white  of 
the  eye,  and  all  action  suspended,  is  the  precise  point  of  time 
chosen  by  the  sculptor,  in  obedience  to  the  laws  of  his  art,  as 
the  one  most  suitable  for  representation.     The  skill  with  which 
it  is  accomplished  can  be  appreciated  only  by  those  who  have 
had  the  pain  of  witnessing  the  same  natural  effect  of  momentary 
insensibility  from  intense  and  overpowering  agony.    Those  who 
have,  cannot  mistake  the  position  of  the  head  dropped  upon 
the  shoulder,  where  it  rests  for  the  moment,  and  for  the  mo- 
ment only,  until  returning  consciousness  restores  action  to  the 
muscles.     Even  if  this  were  doubtful,  the  peculiar  expression 
of  the  eye  is  sufficient  to  mark  the  influence  of  the  involuntary 
muscles. 

909.  One  of  the  sons  apparently  suspends  his  own  efforts,  to 
cast  an  imploring  and  silent  appeal  for  aid  from  his  father ; 
while  the  other  appears  to  have  abandoned  his  struggle  in  u 
moment  of  hopeless  despair.     He  has  evidently  lost  all  control 
of  action ;  his  expression  indicates  faintness,  and  the  next  instant 
his  right  hand  will  drop  powerless. 


264:  STUDY  OF  ART. 

910.  The  famous  statue  of  the  Apollo  represents  him  also 

a  moment  of  repose.  Having  discharged  his  arrow,  he  retains 
the  same  position  as  his  eye  follows  its  course.  Had  his  mark 
been  near  at  hand,  the  position  would  be  false.  It  shows  at 
once,  that  he  is  the  "  far-shooting  god." 

911.  It  is  said  of  Benjamin  West,  "  that  when  he  first  saw 
the  Apollo  Belvidere,  he  exclaimed,  "How  like  a  Mohawk 
warrior !"    He  then  described  to  the  bystanders  their  education ; 
their  dexterity  with  the  bow  and  arrow ;  the  admirable  elasticity 
of  their  limbs ;  how  much  their  active  life  expands  the  chest, 
while  the  quick  breathing  of  their  speed  in  the  chase,  dilates 
the  nostrils  with  that  apparent  consciousness  of  vigor  which  is 
so  nobly  depicted  in  the  Apollo.     "  I  have  seen  them  often," 
added  he,  "  standing  in  that  very  attitude,  and  pursuing,  with 
an  intense  eye,  the  arrow  which  they  had  just  discharged  from 
the  bow."    The  Italians  present  admitted  that  a  better  criticism 
of  the  merits  of  the  statue,  had  rarely  been  given.* 

912.  Ancient  artists  were  careful  in  their  choice  of  accesso- 
ries, that  they  should  be  expressive,  and  true  to  the  time  and 
the  character  represented.     This  accuracy  gives  to  ancient  coins 
and  medals  great  value  and  importance.     The  historian,  in  the 
study  of  coins,  finds  a  chronology  of  reigns  that  supplies  the  want 
of  dates.     It  is  true,  the  passing  events  of  the  day  are  now 
recorded  in  history.     But,  can  this  render  truth  of  representa- 
tion any  less  important  ?     Even  allowing  that  to  be  the  case, 
should  not  the  beauty  of  propriety  be  considered  ?   Is  this  point 
sufficiently  regarded  by  artists  of  the  present  day  ? 

913.  Two  years  since  a  medal  was  cast,  presenting  on  the 
obverse,  "  the  figure  of  Justice,  elevated  on  a  small  pedestal, 
bestowing  a  wreath  of  laurel  upon  Industry,  represented  by  a 
female  figure,  led  by  Progress ;"  on  the  reverse,  "  Exhibition  of 
the  Industry  of  All  Nations,  New  York,  1853." 

914.  Let  us  examine  these  figures  and  their  accessories.   In- 

*  Gait's  Life  of  West. 


SCULPTURE.  265 

clustry,  the  principal  one  of  the  group,  appears  in  a  very  doubtful 
position,  and  we  know  of  but  one  word  that  will  define  it,  that 
is  squatting.  If  any  person  after  examining  the  figure,  can  fur- 
nish one  more  suitable,  as  well  as  more  artistic,  we  shall  be 
happy  to  substitute  it.  In  her  left  hand  she  holds  a  long  stick 
that  rests  upon  her  shoulder,  bearing  an  ^appendage  at  the  top, 
probably  intended  for  a  distaff.  If  so,  she  has  the  attribute  of 
Lachesis,  whose  office  it  is  to  spin  the  thread  of  life.  Progress, 
so  called,  wears  upon  his  head  something  like  a  diadem,  and  is 
winged.  This  attribute  seems  not  particularly  expressive,  wings 
being  common  to  angels,  genii,  cupids,  etc. ;  and  if  assumed  by 
Progress,  would  be  likely  to  secure  to  him  a  fate  similar  to  that 
of  Icarus.  In  his  right  hand  he  holds  a  globe,  and  with  his  left 
presents  Industry  for  the  prize.  Justice,  in  assuming  the  office 
of  Victory,  has  dropped  the  bandage,  one  of  her  peculiar  attri- 
butes, and  has  also  borrowed  a  crown,  which  she  wears  upon 
her  head.  Not  only  that,  she  is  so  absorbed  in  her  new  office 
of  bestowing  the  wreath  of  victory,  upon  the  figure  at  her  feet, 
that  she  forgets  her  own  peculiar  vocation,  that  of  balancing  the 
scales.  Indeed,  the  manner  in  which  she  holds  them  would 
indicate  that  the  prize  were  as  well  awarded  without  their 
use. 

915.  Suppose  this  medal  should  be  found  five  hundred  years 
hence,  with  the  reverse  entirely  obliterated,  leaving  nothing  but 
the  figures  and  their  accessories  to  explain  its  origin  and  its 
meaning,  what  is  there  to  decide  its  date,  or  object,  or  locality  ? 
With  this  deficiency,  is  it,  or  is  it  not  wanting  in  merit  as  a 
work  of  art.  (x) 

916.  A  modern  bust  of  Medusa,  in  the  expression  and  atti- 
tude of  the  head,  reminds  one  of  the  antique  statue  of  Niobe. 
Indeed,  the  resemblance  is  so  strong,  as  to  suggest  the  idea  of 
their  having  been  twin  sisters.     The  hair  is  represented  in  a 
state  of  transformation,  after  some  antiques  of  the  same  subject. 
The  mysterious  attributes  of  this   mysterious  character,   the 
wings,  are  dropped  close  to  the  head.     Over  the  forehead,  the 
heads  of  the  serpents  are  made  very  conspicuous,  and  arrayed 

1? 


266  STUDY   OF  ART. 

in  regular  curves  with  the  evident_intention  of  forming  some- 
thing like  a  coronet,  which  has  a  finical  effect.  At  the  termi- 
nation of  the  bust,  and  forming  the  edge  of  it,  are  two  good- 
sized  snakes,  their  heads  uniting  in  the  centre,  and  the  tails 
reaching  to  the  shoulders.  Introduced  in  this  way,  they  are 
accessories,  and,  as  such,  belong  to  Minerva.  On  a  bust  of  Me- 
dusa they  are  false  and  out  of  place.  Representing  living  ser- 
pents on  living  flesh  is  a  matter  of  taste.  When  given  to  Mi- 
nerva they  are  placed  upon  her  asgis. 

917.  The  faults  in  the  anatomy  of  the  bust,  both  in  form  and 
proportion,  are  quite  as  glaring  as  the  incongruity  of  the  parts. 
There  is  no  greater  waste  of  time  and  talent  than  in  making 
ingenious  changes  upon  works  that  in  character  have  become 
like  a  once  living,  but  now  dead  language.     If  there  were  any 
eclat  attending  it,  the  same  industry  would  be  employed  upon  a 
Chinese  puzzle,  or  in  indiscriminately  copying  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphics, without  regard  to  their  meaning. 

918.  This  bust  presents  another  example  of  a  mixed  charac- 
ter embodied  in  one  representation ;  a  very  common  error  of 
modern  artists  who  attempt  to  illustrate  the  ideal  conceptions 
belonging  to  ages  past,  and  which  people  of  the  present  time 
can  but  imperfectly  comprehend.      In   attempting  something 
new  in  that  field,  the  artist  can,  with  his  best  effort,  make  but 
an  unmeaning  variation  upon  ancient  works  of  art,  which  will 
serve  to  show  how  little  he  comprehends  his  subject,  and  how 
limited  his  ability  in  the  representation  of  it.  (y) 

919.  Canova  attached  much  importance  to  composition,  and 
in  speaking  of  West's  pictures  remarked,  "  He  groups ;  he  does 
not  compose." 

920.  Many  will  remember  a  statue  executed  by  Canova,  for 
the  State  of  North  Carolina.*     The  face  bore  the  likeness  of 
the  father  of  our  country,  and  its  first  president,  or  chief  magis- 
trate.    The  artist  represented  him  seated,  and  holding  a  tablet 
on  which  he  was  writing.     His  costume  was  emblematic  of  war, 

*  Unfortunately  destroyed  by  fire. 


SCULPTURE.  267 

suited  to  the  warrior  and  the  warrior  only.  Here  was  embo- 
died the  artist's  conception  of  a  warrior  and  lawgiver.  For 
this  purpose,  nothing  could  have  been  more  simple,  more  suit- 
able, or  more  expressive  than  the  seated  figure  with  its  chosen 
accessories.  The  following  description  of  it,  by  a  lady  of  North 
Carolina,  will  be  read  with  interest : 

921.  "This  beautiful  specimen  of  the  sculptural   art,   re- 
ceived its  first  lines  and  last  finish  from  Canova,  Prince  of 
Ischia.     This  celebrated  man  has  been  compared  to  Praxitiles, 
and  Phidias,  and  the  statue  and  pedestal  are  said  by  connois- 
seurs in  the  fine  arts,  to  be  finished  with  a  boldness  of  outline, 
and  a  delicacy  of  taste,  which  rank  them  with  the  choicest  spe- 
cimens of  antiquity. 

922.  "  The  likeness  is  good,  nor  could  it  well  have  been 
otherwise,  for  it  was  copied  from  a  bust  in  Gesso,  taken  from 
life  by  the  celebrated  Cenacci,  when  in  this  country.     The  fig- 
ures on  the  four  sides  of  the  pedestal  are  the  production  of 
Trantanore,  the  favorite  pupil  of  Canova,  and  are  in  basso- 
relievo.     They  are  formed  and  grouped  with  the  most  exquisite 
taste,  and  commemorate  the  four  great  events,  civil  and  military, 
in  the  life  of  the  illustrious  man  they  are  intended  to  celebrate ; 
viz.,  First,  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis.     Second,  the  resigna- 
tion of  General  Washington  at  the  close  of  the  war.      Third, 
represents  the  hero,  like  Cincinnatus,  holding  the  plough  on  his 
return  to  private  life.     Fourth,  in  the  act  of  accepting  the  pres- 
idency of  the  United  States.     The  statue  and  pedestal  are  of 
the  whitest  and  purest  marble.     The  general  is  represented  in 
a  sitting  posture,  with  a  stylus  in  his  hand,  writing  his  farewell 
address."* 

923.  In  regard  to  the  finish  of  the  work,  the  same  general 
rules  that  govern  the  art  of  painting  apply  also  to  sculpture. 
Before   pronouncing  judgment   upon   the   finish   of    a   work, 
or  the   style    of    execution,   it   is  necessary   to   consider   the 

*  Dated,  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  Dec.  24th,  1821. 


268 


STUDY   OF   ART. 


position  for  which  it  is  designed,  as  well  as  the  distance  from 
which  it  should  be  seen.  If  the  distance  of  the  point  of  view, 
from  the  object  is  equal  to  three  times  its  height,  the  eye  will 
compass  its  true  proportions.  Without  reference  to  this  rule, 
people  stand  within  arm's  length  of  the  Laocoon,  and  exclaii 
"What  hillocks  of  flesh!" 

924.  Phidias  and  one  of  his  scholars,  Alcamenes,  were  eac 
commissioned  to  make  a  statue  of  Minerva,  which  was  to  be 
placed  upon  a  column  of  great  height ;  and  when  both  were 
completed,  the  public  were  to  decide  the  choice  between  the 
two.  On  their  being  exhibited,  Alcamenes'  statue  was  prefer- 
red for  its  beauty  of  finish,  and  that  of  Phidias  rejected  because 
of  its  coarse  and  rough  surface.  They  were  then  elevated  to 
the  position  for  which  they  were  designed,  when  it  was  seen  at 
once,  that  the  highly  finished  work  of  Alcamenes  lost  all  char- 
acter in  the  distance,  while  the  energy  and  force  still  exhibited 
in  that  of  Phidias,  proved  the  mature  judgment  and  vigorous 
hand  of  the  master,  and  the  decision  was  immediately  reversed. 


[The  subject  of  Sculpture  will  be  more  fully  treated  in  a  future  work.] 
THE    END. 


APPENDIX. 


(a.) 

(§  2).  Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  all  works  that  required  skill  of 
hand,  were  regarded  as  works  of  Art  •  and  all  who  attained  this 
skill,  from  the  sculptor  to  the  sadler,  were  called  artists.  Those 
nations  who  in  the  progress  of  cultivation  followed  the  Greeks,  imi- 
tating their  arts,  multiplied  terms  of  distinction,  as  Fine  Arts,  and 
Mechanic  Arts,  with  their  subdivisions.  The  spirit  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury gives  birth  to  still  more,  and  we  now  have  "  high  art ;"  imply- 
ing the  existence  of  low  art,  (which  perhaps  few  will  deny)  with 
other  terms  equally  suitable  and  indispensable,  as  for  instance,  Prae 
Raphselitism. 

"  Six  of  the  ancient  Greek  Arts  were  subordinate  to  Musica,  or 
Harmonia ;  three  of  which  taught  all  kinds  of  composition,  and  three 
all  kinds  of  execution.  With  regard  to  composition  they  were  divi- 
ded into  the  MelopatOj  the  Rythmica.  and  the  Poetica. 

"  The  Melopeeia  included  instruction  in  the  composition  of  music, 
in  recitation  and  declamation. 

c:  The  Rythmica  prescribed  rules  for  reducing  the  motions  of  the 
body,  and  the  modulations  of  the  voice  to  a  certain  measure,  which 
the  recitor,  the  gesticulator,  the  chorus,  and  the  instrumental  players, 
were  all  obliged  to  observe  as  a  common  rule. 

Seneca  says  :  "  'Tis  surprising  to  see  the  gesture  of  the  eminent 
comedians  on  the  stage  overtake  and  even  keep  pace  with  speech, 
notwithstanding  the  velocity  of  the  tongue."  Cicero  says  :  "  that  a 
comedian  who  dropped  a  gesture  out  of  time,  was  hissed  as  much  as 
one  who  was  mistaken  in  pronouncing  a  verse."  Lucian  observes 
also  :  "  that  a  gesture  not  in  the  proper  measure,  was  considered  a 


270  APPENDIX. 

capital  fault  in  an  actor,  which  occasioned  the  proverb  amoi 
Greeks,  '  to  commit  a  solecism  with  the  hand'' " 

'•  The  Poetica  taught  the  art  of  composing  verses  to  measure. 
Among  the  Greeks  poetica  and  poetic  music  were  the  same.  By  the 
Romans  it  was  divided  into  the  art  of  making  metrical  verses  and 
of  composing  melody. 

"  In  regard  to  execution,  musica  was  divided  into  the  odical,  or 
art  of  singing ;  the  organical,  or  art  of  playing  upon  instruments  ;  and 
the  hypocritical,  (so  called  because  it  properly  belonged  to  the  come- 
dians, who  by  the  Greeks  were  called  counterfeiters)  which  taught 
the  art  of  gesture  by  rules  established  on  certain  principles.  Both 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  this  art  was  called  dancing. 

"  Musica  or  Harmonia  gave  methodical  lessons  on  so  many  sub- 
jects, that  the  Greeks  attached  great  importance  to  a  knowledge  of  it. 
Aristidcs  Quintilianus  says  that  '  music  is  an  art  necessary  to  all 
ages  in  life.  That  to  be  an  orator  a  person  must  understand  music ; 
that  without  it  he  cannot  be  a  good  grammarian,  because  grammar 
cannot  be  properly  taught  without  the  use  of  metre  and  rhythmus.  He 
also  observes,  that  in  former  times,  the  professions  of  teaching  music 
and  grammar  were  united  and  practiced  by  the  same  master.'  All 
the  writings  of  the  ancients  show  that  music  was  considered  an  in- 
dispensable study,  and  that  those  who  were  ignorant  of  the  laws  of 
Musica  or  Harmonia,  were  regarded  like  the  illiterate  of  our  own 
day  who  can  neither  read  nor  write." — Du  Bos  on  the  Fine  Arts. 


(b.) 

(§  9.)  "The  Pantomimic  Art,  or  the  art  of  representing  all  theatri- 
cal subjects  without  speaking,  originated  in  Rome,  under  the  Empe- 
ror Augustus.  "  Hence,"  Lucian  says,  that  "  Socrates  had  seen  the 
art  of  dancing  only  in  its  infancy."  To  signify  that  the  Pantomimes 
acted  a  piece,  it  was  usual  to  say  that  they  danced  it.  The  gesticu- 
lations were  borrowed  from  the  Emmelia  used  in  tragedy ;  the  Cordax 
in  comedy;  and  the  Sicinnis  in  satire.  Those  peculiar  to  the  Roman 
players  were  called  Italica. 

"  The  gesticulator,  who  accompanied  the  ancient  comedian,  was  pro- 
perly a  pantomime,  or  dumb  actor.  The  pantomimes  acted  entire  plays. 
Their  motions  were  made  to  music ;  the  expression  depended  entirely 
on  signs  and  gestures ;  nothing  was  conveyed  by  the  expression  of 


APPENDIX.  271 

the  lace,  because  they  wore  masks.  Lucian  says,  that  the  spectators 
wept  al,  the  representations  of  the  pantomimes  as  well  as  those  of 
other  comedians  ;  and  the  pantomimes  sometimes  so  worked  upon  each 
other  as  to  shed  tears  themselves. 

The  Romans  became  so  passionately  interested  and  absorbed  in  the 
pantomimic  representations,  and  such  serious  evils  grew  out  of  them 
that  the  pantomimes  were  repeatedly  banished  from  Rome.  Once 
under  Nero."  —  Du  Bos. 

This,  like  all  other  arts  had  its  influence  upon  the  character  and 
manners  of  the  people,  and  probably  gave  rise  to  that  habit  of  gesti- 
culation, and  those  expressive  signs  that  accompany  the  language 
of  common  intercourse  among  the  people  of  Southern  Europe, 

w 

($  49.)  This  law  of  harmony  is  universal.  We  find  it  in  nature  ; 
we  find  it  in  the  artistic  productions  of  every  age  and  nation  ;  and 
we  find  it  pervading  life.  Take,  for  instance,  the  straight-backed 
chairs,  etc.,  of  the  last  century,  belonging  to  the  Puritan  times,  so 
perfectly  in  keeping  with  the  simple  elegance  of  costume,  and  stately 
manners  of  that  day,  and  the  profuse  toilet  that  belonged  to  the  time 
of  Charles  II,  all  of  which  were  in  keeping.  Let  us  observe  how 
perfectly  the  style  of  each  corresponded  with  the  character  of  the 
people  by  whom  it  was  adopted,  or  rather  with  whom  it  originated, 
and  we  find  abundant  evidence  of  this  universal  law  of  harmony. 


(§  79.)  Natives  of  a  limestone  country  are  said  to  have  but  lit- 
tle vivacity,  either  physical  or  mental.  Horses  of  the  same  region 
are  solid  and  heavy,  having  nothing  of  the  fleetness  of  the  Arabian 
steed,  reared  in  the  sandy  desert. 


(§  85).  '•  Musical  instruments  are  to  music,  what  tools  are  to  a  han- 
dicraft employment.  They  are  invented  and  perfected  according  to 
the  development  of  music  :  but,  as  the  tools  influence  the  handicraft, 
so  musical  instruments  in  their  turn  react  on  the  character  of  the 


272  APPENDIX. 

music,  and  impart  to  it  a  distinctive  character,  leading  even  to  con- 
siderable modifications  in  its  general  features,  and  thus  form  an  im- 
portant agency  in  the  whole  development  of  the  art.  We  have  only 
to  remind  our  readers  of  the  connection  between  the  grand  Erard 
pianos  of  seven  octaves,  and  the  new  piano- forte  schools.  We  need 
scarcely  ask,  could  the  one  exist  without  the  other  ?  We  can  thus 
trace  the  action  of  the  musical  instruments  in  the  national  music  of 
all  countries,  and  in  most  instances,  we  can  discern  in  the  character 
of  the  musicrthe  nature  of  the  instruments  that  serve  to  express  it. 
In  every  Spanish  air,  we  hear  the  sighing  of  the  mandolin,  or  the 
clinking  of  the  castanet ;  in  the  Venetian,  we  have  the  dreamy  sound 
of  the  guitar  ;  in  the  Swiss,  the  echo  of  the  bugle, — and  who  could 
mistake  in  Scotch  music  the  drone  of  that  old  worthy,  the  bagpipe  ? 
It  seems  growling  at  the  follies  of  the  small  reeds,  while  it  accom- 
panies their  mad  leaps  with  its  uniform  and  benignant  hum,  and 
largely  contributes  to  the  humorous  effect  by  the  contrast  it  presents 
to  the  quick,  high  notes  of  Scotch  tunes." — North  British  Review,  Feb. 
1854. 


($  114.)  The  Jews  here  are  spoken  of  nationally,  not  forgetting  the 
eminent  musical  composers  to  whom  the  world  is  indebted. 

Flaxman  says,  "  Were  we  to  search  with  the  most  scrutinizing 
diligence  for  some  specimens  of  ancient  Jewish  art,  only  three  could 
be  produced  •  the  piece  of  money  called  a  shekel,  bearing  a  cup  on 
one  side,  and  an  almond  branch  on  the  other  •  the  candlestick  with 
seven  branches  •  and  the  table  of  show  bread,  on  a  bas-relief  under 
the  arch  of  Titus.  The  porticos  of  tombs  in  Palestine,  which  have 
been  published,  bear  a  strong  appearance  of  Greek  restoration." 


fe.) 

(§  259.)  It  is  nearly  impossible  in  a  work  of  this  size  to  include 
illustrations  suitable  for  study,  therefore  it  is  not  attempted.  The 
student  who  wishes  to  excel  as  an  artist,  will  study  anatomy  with 
"  knife  in  hand,"  so  far  as  practicable.  Those  who  do,  as  well  as 
those  who  do  not  pursue  this  method,  will  find  it  well  to  have  maps 
of  large  size  representing  the  skeleton  and  the  principal  external 


APPENDIX.  273 

muscles,  constantly  in  view  in  the  studio,  until  they  are  able  to  de- 
lineate them  correctly  from  memory.  This  skill  qualifies  the  artist 
to  study  the  effect  of  the  muscular  action  peculiar  to  people  of  dif- 
ferent temperaments  and  various  occupations,  whenever  occasion  re- 
quires. 

"  Fau's  Anatomy  of  the  External  Forms  of  Man,"  with  the  port- 
folio of  plates  accompanying  it,  Ci  intended  for  the  use  of  artists, 
painters,  and  sculptors,"  is  the  most  complete  work  published  on  the 
subject.  Haydon's  Lectures  on  Anatomy  are  clear  and  forcible,  and 
will  be  studied  with  advantage. 

If  any  one  questions  the  importance  of  anatomical  knowledge  to 
the  artist,  let  him  look  at  the  figures  in  Boydell's  Shakspeare,  placed 
in  attitudes  that  no  muscles  or  joints  could  assume,  much  less  main- 
tain. Let  him  consider  also,  whether  people  would  be  saved  from 
imposition,  acd  a  worse  than  useless  expenditure  of  money,  if  draw- 
ing were  taught  as  it  should  be,  in  all  schools  and  by  competent 
teachers.  For  some  figures  in  that  extraordinary  production,  judging 
from  their  impossible  positions,  and  positive  meagerness,  one  would 
suppose  that  the  artists,  in  their  models,  must  have  been  limited  to 
dancing-jacks. 

The  chapters  on  Anatomy  are  prepared  principally  from  the 
authors  above  referred  to,  with  reference  to  the  use  of  classes  under 
my  own  tuition,  referring  to  the  skeleton  maps  for  illustration. 

Allston's  Lectures  cannot  be  too  much  studied.  A  superficial 
reading  will  give  no  idea  of  their  merit  and  value.  It  is  no  dispa- 
ragement to  the  young  to  say  that  they  cannot  fully  appreciate  them. 
Their  philosophical  depth  will  be  better  comprehended  and  enjoyed 
in  maturity. 

(h.) 

($  300.)  The  importance  of  rules  is  fully  and  freely  acknowledged  in 
the  compositions  of  every  art  but  that  of  painting.  Why  should  this 
one  be  made  an  exception?  In  poetry  false  metre  is  considered  un- 
pardonable, because  it  destroys  the  harmony  of  the  verse.  Music 
that  is  not  true  to  key  and  measure,  is  condemned  for  its  discords.  A 
large  and  imposing  picture,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  execution  of  which 
every  rule  of  art  is  violated,  is  exhibited  to  the  public,  commands  the 
admiration  of  the  ignorant  multitude,  and  the  few  who  venture  to 

12* 


274:  APPENDIX. 

question  its  merit  are  called  "  hyper-critical."  A  person  who  sings, 
or  plays  on  an  instrument  guided  "by  his  ear  alone,  ignorant  of  every 
rule  of  music,  would  hardly  be  considered  authority  in  judging  the 
merits  of  an  opera.  Yet,  many  who  are  equally  ignorant  of  the 
rules  of  art  are  regarded  as  infallible  judges  of  the  merits  of  its 
various  productions. 

What  does  not  literature  owe  to  the  critics  ?  And  what  would 
contribute  so  much  to  the  progress  of  art  or  the  interests  of  artists  as 
a  critical  public  ?  Not  captious  and  fault-finding,  but  who  from 
knowledge  of  the  subject,  are  capable  of  forming  a  true  judgment. 


(§  352.)  The  atmosphere  absorbs  light,  hence  the  color  of  the  sky. 

"  It  has  been  calculated  that  if  the  amosphere  in  its  present  state 
could  be  extended  700  miles  above  the  earth's  surface  instead  of  40, 
as  it  is  at  present,  that  the  sun's  rays  could  not  penetrate  it,  and  this 
globe  would  revolve  in  darkness  and  silence,  a  dead  waste.  The  same 
calculation  shows  that  sea-  water  loses  its  transparency  at  the  depth 
of  370  feet."  —  Robt.  Hunt. 

Sea-shells  at  a  certain  depth  are  colorless.  Sea-  weeds  vary  ac- 
cording to  their  proximity  to  the  shore  ]  of  course,  to  the  surface  of 
the  water.  When  dried,  exposed  to  the  sun,  they  gain  much  in  color. 


(§  370.)  One  subterfuge  of  ignorance  is  as  good  as  another  ,  and  this 
reminds  us  of  a  portrait  painter  once,  employed  to  paint  the  likeness 
of  a  boy,  who  finding  the  representation  of  the  hands  beyond  the  limit 
of  his  skill,  concealed  them  both  in  the  sitter's  pockets. 

(*.) 

(§  402.)  Morland  is  said  to  have  followed  the  same  practice.  He 
was  once  recognized  on  the  Isle  of  Wight  in  a  low  public  house,  with 
a  number  of  fishermen  and  sailors,  in  the  midst  of  whom  he  was 
contributing  his  joke.  The  next  day  his  friend  remonstrated  with 
him  for  keeping  such  low  company.  He  drew  a  sketch  book  from  his 
pocket,  and  asked  where  he  was  to  find  so  true  a  picture  of  humble 


APPENDIX.  275 

life,  unless  it  was  in  such  a  place.  The  sketch  was  a  correct  de- 
lineation of  every  object  in  the  tap-room,  even  to  a  stool  or  settee,  a 
countenance  and  attitude.  This  representation  his  memory  had  sup- 
plied after  leaving  the  house,  and  one  of  his  best  pictures  is  the 
very  scene  he  then  sketched. — Fusel?  s  Pilkington's  Dictionary. 

This  truth  to  nature  gives  to  Morland's  pictures  intrinsic  merit,  to 
which  he  has  added  an  ideal  beauty  that  will  ensure  them  immor- 
tality. They  will  outlast  Turner's,  because  his  pictures  have  not 
the  same  truth  to  nature. 


(§  480.)  On  this  point  as  well  as  others,  this  work  merely  furnishes 
hints  for  study.  Nature  is  always  at  hand  with  her  infinite  variety. 
The  student  will  find  that  this  law  of  unity  found  in  nature,  governs 
other  arts.  As  for  instance  the  finest  poetry  is  not  set  to  powerful 
music  ;  one  or  the  other  must  be  subordinate. 

(m.) 

(§  482.)  Effect,  though  an  essential  element  of  the  pleasing,  both  in 
nature  and  art,  admits  of  no  explanation.  If  an  artist  has  not  an 
eye  for  effect,  or  the  power  of  perception  by  which  alone  it  can  be 
understood,  it  must  ever  be  to  his  mind  an  unsolved  mystery. 

(n.) 

($  517.)  Cartoon,  a  drawing  or  painting  upon  large  paper,  usually 
made  as  patterns  for  painting  in  fresco,  tapestry,  mosaic,  etc.  The 
outline  is  made  the  full  size  required,  and  neatly  punctured  with  a 
sharp  point,  and  then  transferred  to  the  material  used.  The  finest 
works  of  this  kind  are  those  celebrated  ones  of  Raffaelle,  preserved 
in  the  Royal  palace  of  Hampton  Court,  called  emphatically  the  Car- 
toons. 


(§  595.)  Artists  first  introduced  in  their  works  a  hand  issuing  from 
a  cloud,  as  a  symbol  of  the  Deity.  Afterwards  a  head ;  and  gra- 
dually the  whole  figure. 


276 


APPENDIX. 


($  630.)  Benjamin  West  in  remarking  upon  the  obelisk,  carric 
from  Egypt  to  Rome  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  said  that  the  hiero- 
glyphics appeared  so  exactly  to  resemble  the  figures  in  the  wampum 
belts  of  the  Indians,  that  it  occurred  to  him  if  ever  the  mysteries  of 
Egypt  were  interpreted,  it  might  be  by  the  aborigines  of  America. 


(§  634.)  The  Roman  style  revived  in  the  16th  century,  was  called 
the  Renaissance.  It  was  also  called  Cinque  Ponto,  from  the  change 
having  commenced  in  the  1  5th  century. 

to 

(§  669.)  "  Various  authors  point  out  the  resemblance  of  many  of  the 
old  Italian  pictures  of  the  Madonna  and  Infant  Savior  to  the  ancient 
Egyptian  paintings  representing  Isis  and  her  offspring  •  and  there 
can  be  little  doubt,  especially  where  the  Madonna  and  child  are 
painted  black,  that  they  are  copies  from  original  pictures,  and  painted 
long  after  the  Christian  era." 


(§  697.)  The  funeral  pile  was  a  hundred  feet  square,  and  when 
completely  lighted,  the  flames  would  naturally  take  a  form  that 
would  suggest  the  idea  of  a  pyramid. 

It  is  supposed  that  in  form,  the  obelisk  is  a  symbol  of  a  ray  of 
light. 

(0. 

(§  698.)  "  When  drapery  was  given  to  Jupiter  it  was  red  ;  Juno's 
vestments  were  sky-blue,  and  sometimes  a  white  veil  j  to  Neptune, 
sea-green  ;  this  color  belonged  also  to  the  nereids  and  sea-nymphs  ; 
the  mantle  of  Apollo  was  blue  or  violet  ;  that  of  Bacchus  was  white  ; 
green  was  assigned  to  Cybele  ;  flame  color  to  Pallas  ;  and  Venus  (in 
a  painting  at  Herculaneum,)  is  in  flowing  drapery  of  golden  yellow." 


APPENDIX.  277 

(u.) 

(§767.)  Crosses  of  elaborate  workmanship  in  the  Gothic  style  of 
Architecture,  erected  by  Edward  1st,  on  the  spot  where  the  body  of 
Queen  Eleanor  rested  on  its  way  to  London. 


(§  772.)  Pliny  and  Philostratus  relate  that  the  dragons  of  Ethiopia 
were  twenty  ells  in  length,  and  mentions  one  that  had  been  seen  in 
the  Indies,  seventy  ells  in  length,  with  eyes  as  large  as  a  Macedo- 
nian buckler.  It  existed  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  resided 
in  a  cavern  from  which  it  only  put  forth  its  head,  and  received  divine 
honors.  Others  are  described  as  equally  marvellous  that  are  attri- 
buted to  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 

(w). 

(§849.)  A  statue  in  the  Boston  Athenaeum,  called  the  "Ship- 
wrecked Mother,"  is  so  obtrusively  nude,  that  if  each  visitor  were 
separately  asked  to  furnish  an  epitaph,  the  one  naturally  and  uni- 
versally suggested  would  be,  naked  earnest  thou  into  the  world,  and 
naked  shalt  thou  depart  from  it. 

to 

(§  915.)  The  committee  awarding  the  prizes  offered  the  sum  of 
$200  for  a  medal  design  that  should  "  best  express  the  objects  of  the 
Institution.1'  There  were  some  eighty  offered  to  them  for  examina- 
tion. Ever  since  the  publication  of  the  one  chosen,  our  admiration 
has  been  divided  between  the  artistic  skill  exhibited  in  the  design, 
and  the  taste  that  decided  the  selection.  The  reverse  admits  of  no 
description.  The  numerous  advertisements  in  the  Railway  Guides 
furnish  abundant  representations  of  it,  where  it  bears  a  decided  re- 
semblance to  a  certain  coin  called  a  "  red  cent."  We  beg  leave  to 
state  that  it  cannot  be  claimed  as  a  specimen  of  Yankee  Art,  being 
the  production  of  an  Englishman. 


278  APPENDIX. 


($918.)  The  explanation  to  these  ancient  fables  is  perhaps  best 
given  in  the  works  of  the  sculptors  of  antiquity,  who  might  have 
been  co-eval  with  their  invention.  A  representation  of  Medusa 
found  in  Worlidge's  "  Antique  Gems,"  represents  her  as  very  hand- 
some, apparently  unconscious  of  the  transformation  that  has  already 
commenced  in  her  beautiful  locks,  and  so  perfectly  self-complacent 
in  expression  that  the  idea  suggested  is,  that  the  serpent,  the  emblem 
of  evil,  there  lies  concealed.  This  representation  of  Medusa  is 
probably  according  to  the  fable,  that  her  beautiful  locks  were 
changed  to  serpents  by  Minerva,  whose  temple  she  had  profaned  in 
company  with  Neptune.  It  exhibits  nothing  terrific,  no  power  of 
changing  to  stone  is  suggested  to  the  mind,  yet  in  the  fable,  the 
moral,  less  literal  maybe,  that  indulgence  in  vicious  pleasure  deadens 
the  natural  tastes  and  affections,  or  in  other  words,  changes  the 
heart  to  stone. 

In  the  description  of  the  Medusa  slain  by  Perseus,  who  had  the 
power  of  changing  the  beholder  to  stone,  she  is  described  as  having 
serpents  instead  of  hair;  and  a  body  covered  with  scales  that  termi- 
nated in  the  tail  of  a  serpent.  May  not  this  be  one  form  of  the 
myth  of  the  dragon,  the  symbol  of  sin  and  evil  ?  Perseus,  armed 
and  protected  by  the  gods,  who  ever  guard  heroic  virtue,  resolutely 
avoided  looking  upon  her,  and  cut  off  her  head.  Still,  her  power 
was  not  destroyed,  for  according  to  the  fable,  the  serpents  that  fill 
the  deserts  of  Lybia  sprang  from  her  blood. 


MISS  M.  A.. 

f  IMSEIira  (DIP  ADMP, 
2t  Ww  Stiffen'*  School,   fleto  ifoben,  COM., 

Respectfully  gives  notice,  that  any  ladies  wishing  to  receive 
instruction  in  Practical  Drawing,  can  join  Classes  now  under 
tuition ;  or,  they  can,  if  preferred,  receive  private  lessons. 

The  method  of  teaching  adopted  is,  first,  the  study  of  form 
from  the  model,  and  then  from  life. 

Classes  are  also  formed  for  familiar  Lectures  upon  Art. 
The  subjects  of  the  course  for  the  school  year,  are  Painting, 
twelve  lectures — Sculpture  and  Architecture,  twelve  lectures — 
Antiquities  and  History  of  Art,  twelve  lectures. 

TEEMS. 

PRACTECAL  DRAWING,  $12 — for  twenty-four  Lessons. 
FAMILIAR    LECTURES    ON    ART,    $6 — for    a    course,    including 
twelve  lectures. 


NEW  HAVEN,  December  6,  1855. 

Within  a  few  months  past,  I  have  had  the  pleasure  of  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  Miss  DWIGHT'S  method  of  teaching  Drawing,  and  have 
watched  with  great  interest  the  progress  of  several  of  her  pupils. 

I  am  entirely  satisfied  that  her  method  is  far  better  than  the  one  commonly 
practised,  (that  of  teaching  to  draw  from  copies,)  and  that  the  progress  of 
her  pupils  has  been  very  satisfactory.  Miss  Dwight  uniformly  excites  the 
enthusiasm  of  her  scholars,  and,  at  the  same  time,  gives  them  accurate  and 
clear  views  of  art,  while  the  method  she  adopts  is  fitted  to  make  them  capable 
of  executing  any  kind  of  drawing  with  self-reliance  and  with  pleasure. 

N.  PORTER. 

NEW  HAVEN,  CONN.,  Nov.  21,  1855. 

To  Miss  DWIGHT, — I  take  pleasure  in  expressing  the  gratification  with 
which  I  have  listened  to  your  Course  of  Lectures  upon  Art,  and  with  which 
I  have  heard  a  full  statement  of  the  method  of  instruction  which  you  pursue 
both  in  Lecturing  and  Teaching.  The  information  which  you  give,  in  so 
condensed  a  manner,  is  not  within  the  reach  of  most  persons  in  this  country, 
but  it  seems  to  me  precisely  what  is  needed  by  those  who  hope  to  visit  the 
galleries  of  Europe,  or  who  desire  to  appreciate  good  pictures  at  home.  In 
visiting  museums  abroad  with  American  travelers,  I  have  often  heard  ex- 
pressed the  regret  that  the  opportunity  had  not  been  enjoyed  in  this  country 
of  studying  just  such  topics  as  you  are  accustomed  to  discuss  before  yout 
various  classes.  Very  respectfully,  yours, 

DANIEL  C.  OILMAN. 


A   LIST 

NEW    WORKS 

IN     GENERAL     I^ITERATUBE* 

PUBLISHED  BY 

D.  AFPLETON   &   COMPANY, 

846  &  848  Broadway. 

%*  Complete  Catalogues,  containing  futt  descriptions,  to  le  had  on  appUoc&o*  io 
the  Publishers. 


Agriculture  and  Rural  Affairs. 

Boussingault's  Rural  Economy,         .        .        .  1  25 

The  Poultry  Book,  illustrated.          .        .        .  5  00 

Waring's  Elements  of  Agriculture,          .        .  75 

Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Architec- 
ture. 

Appleton's  Dictionary  of  Mechanics.  2  vols.    .  12  00 
"          Mechanics'  Magazine.  3  vols.  each,    3  50 

Allen's  Philosophy  of  Mechanics,     .        .        .  3  50 

Arnot's  Gothic  Architecture,    .        .        .        .  4  00 

Bassnett's  Theory  of  Storms,    .        .        «        .  1  00 

Bourne  on  the  Steam  Engine,  ....  75 

Byrne  on  Logarithms, 1  00 

Chapman  on  the  American  Rifle,      .        ,        .  1  25 

Coming's  Preservation  of  Health,    .      ' .        .  75 

Cullum  on  Military  Bridges,     .        .        .        .  2  00 

Downing's  Country  Houses,     .        .        .        .  4  00 

Field's  City  Architecture 2  00 

Griffith's  Marine  Architecture,          .        .        .  10  00 

Gillespie's  Treatise  on  Surveying,   . 

Haupt's  Theory  of  Bridge  Construction,  .        .  3  00 

Henck's  Field-Book  for  R.  Road  Engineers,    .  1  75 

Hoblyn'i  Dictionary  of  Scientific  Tei 

Huff's  Manual  of  Electro-Physiology, 

Jeffers'  Practice  of  Naval  Gunnery, 

Knapen's  Mechanics'  Assistant, 

Lafever's  Modern  Architecture, 


1  50 

1  25 

2  50 
1  00 
4  (0 

1  75 

2  25 
2  00 
1  00 


Lyell's  Manual  of  Geology,      . 
"      Principles  of  Geology, . 

Reynold's  Treatise  on  Handrailing, 

Templelon's  Mechanic's  Companion, 

TJro's  Dict'ry  of  Arts,  Manufactures,  <tc.  2  voli.  5  00 

Youmans'  Class-Book  of  Chemistry.        .        .  75 

"        Atlas  of  Chemistry,  cloth,      .        .  2  00 

«        Alcohol, 50 

Biography. 

Arnold's  Life  and  Correspondence,   .        .        ,  2  00 

Capt.  Canot,  or  Twenty  Years  of  a  Slaver,      .  1  25 

Cousin's  De  Longueville, 1  00 

Croswell's  Memoirs, 2  00 

Evelyn's  Life  of  Godolphin,      ....  50 

Garland's  Life  of  Randolph 1  50 

Gilfillan's  Gallery  of  Portraits.  2d  Series,        .  1  00 

Hernan  Cortez's  Life,         .  38 
Hull's  Civil  and  Military  Life,  .        .        .        .200 

Life  and  Adventures  of  Daniel  Boone,      .        .  38 

Life  of  H<  nry  Hudson, 38 

Life  of  Capt.  John  Smith,         ....  38 
Moore's  life  of  George  Castriot,       .        .        .100 

Napoleon's  Memoirs.  By  Ducheto  D'Abrantes,  400 

Napoleon    By  Laurent  L'Ardeche,  .        .        .  3  00 
PiakneytW.)  Life.  By  his  Nephew.      .        .200 

Party  Lejiders  :  Lives  of  Jefferson,  &c.  .        .  1  CO 

Southey't  Life  of  Oliver  Cromwell,          .        .  38 

WvEts's  Lives  of  Eminent  Men,      .        .        .  1  00 

Webnter  s  Life  and  Memorials.  2  vols.    .        .  1  00 

Books  of  General  Utility. 

Arpletocs'  Southern  and  Western  Guide,       .  1  00 

"         Northern  and  Eastern  Guide,        .  1  25 


Appletons'  Complete  U.  S.  Guide,  . 

PP  «          Map  of  N.  Y.  City,         .        . 
American  Practical  Cook  Book, 
A  Treatise  on  Artificial  Fish-Breeding,    . 
Chemistry  of  Common  Life.  2  vols.  12mo. 
Cooley's  Book  of  Useful  Knowledge, 
Cust's  Invalid's  Own  Book,      . 
Delisser's  Interest  Tables,         .       .        ; 
The  English  Cyclopaedia,  per  vol.  .       . 
Miles  on  the  Horsed  Foot, 


t  M 

S6 


60 
4  00 
2  50 

25 


The  Nursery  Basket.  A  Book  for  Young  Mothers,     38 
Pell's  Guide  for  the  Young,      ....        38 


Reid's  New  English  Dictionary, 

Stewart's  Stable  Economy. 

Spalding's  Hist,  of  English  Literature, 

Soyer's  Modern  Cookery,         .        .  . 

The  Successful  Merchant, 

Thomson  on  Food  of  Animals, ....  50 

Commerce  and  Mercantile  Affairs. 

Anderson's  Mercantile  Correspondence,  .        .  1  00 

Delisser's  Interest  Tables,        .        .        .        .  4  00 

Merchants'  Reference  Book.    .        .        .        .  4  00 
Gates'  (Geo.)  Interest  Tables  at  6  Per  Cent. 

per  Annum.  8vo 2  00 

"           "        Do.    do.    Abridged  edition,    .  1  25 

"           "        7  Per  Cent.  Interest  Tables,    .  2  00 

«            "        Abridged 1  25 

Smith's  Mercantile  Law, 4  00 

Geography  and  Atlases. 

Appleton's  Modern  Atlas.  34  Maps,  .  .  3  50 

"  Complete  Atlas.  61  Maps,  .  .  9  00 

Atlas  of  the  Middle  Ages.  By  Kreppen,  .  4  50 

Black's  General  Atlas.  11  Maps,  .  .  .  12  00 

Cornell's  Primary  Geography,  ...  60 

"        Intermediate  Geography,  .        .        , 

«       High  School  Geography,  . 

History. 

Arnold's  History  of  Rome, 

"      Later  Commonwealth, 

"      Lectures  on  Modern  History, 
Dew's  Ancient  and  Modern  History, 

Koeppen's  History  of  the  Middle  Ages.  2  vols.  2  50 

*         The  same,  folio,  with  Map»,    .        .  4  50 

Kohlrausch's  History  of  Germany,  .        .        .  1  50 

Mahon's  (Lord)  History  of  England,  2  vol*.    .  4  00 

Michelet's  History  of  France,  2  vols.        .        .  3  50 

4<          History  of  the  Roman  Republic,     .  1  00 

Rowan's  History  of  the  French  Revolution,    .  63 

Sprague's  History  of  the  Florida  War,    .        .  2  50 

Taylor's  Manual  of  Ancient  History,        .        .  1  26 

"        Manual  of  Modern  History,        .        .  1  50 

"        Manual  of  History.   1  vol.  complete,  2  60 

Thiers' French  Revolution.  4  vols.  Illustrated,  5  00 

Illustrated  Works  for  Presents. 

Bryant's  Poems.    16  niuitrations.  8vo.  cloth,  .  3  50 

«                                               cloth,  gilt,  .  4  50 
«           «                   «             mor.  antique,  6  00 


8  00 

2  50 

1  25 

.    2  00 


D.  Appleton  &  Company's  List  of  New  Works. 


British  Artv  30  Engravings.  1  vol.  4to. 

BOTMOO 18  00 

Gray's  K.lr-y.  Illustrated.  8vo.        .        .        .  1  60 
Goldsmith's  IVsertrd  Village,          .         .        .  1  60 
Tlu-  H..mes  of  American  Authors.  With  Illus- 
trations, cloth,     4  00 

cloth,  gilt,  5  00 

"         mor.  antqe.  7  00 

The  Holy  Go»pels.  With  40  Designs  by  Over- 
beck.  1  vol.  folio.  Antique  mor.        .        .  20  00 
The  Land  of  Bondage.  By  3.  M.  Wainwright, 

D.  D.   Morocco, 0  00 

!  The  Queens  of  England.  By  Agnes  Strickland. 

With  29  Portraits.  Antique  mor.      .        .  10  00 
1  The  Ornaments  of  Memory.  With  18  Illustra- 
tions.  4to.  cloth,  gilt,         .        .        .        .  6  00 
Morocco,     .        .  10  00 
j  Royal  Gems  from  the  Galleries  of  Europe. 

/         40  Engravings, 25  00 

I  The  Republican  Court ;  or,  American  Society 
in  the  Days  of  Washington.  21  Portraits. 

,          Antique  mor 1Q  00 

i  The  Vernon  Gallery.  67  Engrav'gs.  4to.  Ant.  25  00 
t  The  Women  of  the  Bible.    With  18  Engrav- 
ings. Mor.  antique, 10  00 

Wilkie  Gallery.  Containing  60  Splendid  En- 
gravings. 4to.  Antique  mor.     .        .        .  25  00 
A  Winter  Wreath  of  Summer  Flowers.     By 

S.  G.  Goodrich.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  gilt,  .  3  00 

Juvenile  Books. 

A  Poetry  Book  for  Children,    ....  75 

Aunt  Fanny's  Christmas  Stories,      ...  50 

American  Historical  Tales,       ....  75 

UNCLE  AMEREL'S  STORY  BOOKS. 

The  Little  Gift  Book.  18mo.  cloth,  .  .  25 
The  Child's  Story  Book.  Illust.  18mo.  cloth,  25 
Summer  Holidays.  ISmo.  cloth,  ...  25 
Winter  Holidays.  Illu»trated.  18mo.  cloth,  .  25 
George's  Adventures  in  the  Country.  Illustra- 
ted. 18mo.  cloth. 25 

Christmas  Stories.   Illustrated.   18mo.  cloth,  .  25 

Book  of  Trades, 60 

Boys  at  Home.  By  the  Author  of  Edgar  Clifton,  75 

Child's  Cheerful  Companion,     ....  60 

Child's  Picture  and  Verse  Book.  100  Engs.      .  50 

COUSIN  ALICE'S  WORKS. 

All's  Not  Gold  that  Glitters.     ....  75 

Contentment  Better  than  Wealth,    .                .  63 

Nothing  Venture,  Nothing  Have,                     ,  63 

No  such  WTord  as  Fail,    *       .  63 

Patient  Waiting  No  Loss,         .  63 

Dashwood  Priory.     By  the  Author  of  Edga* 

Clifton,        ...        .        .        .        .  75 

Edgar  Clifton ;  or  Right  and  Wrong,      .        .  75 

Fireside  Fairies.  By  Susan  Pindar,         .        .  63 

Good  in  Every  Thing.  By  Mrs.  Barwell,        .  50 

Leisure  Moments  Improved,     ,        .        .        ;  75 

Life  of  Punchinello 75 

LIBRARY  FOR  MY  YOUNG  COUNTRYMEN. 

Adventures  of  Capt.  John  Smith.  By  the  Au- 
thor of  Uncle  Philip,         ....  98 
Adventures  of  Daniel  Boone.     By  do.     .        .  38 
Dawnings  of  Genius.    By  Anne  Pratt,    .        .  88 
Life  and  Adventures  of  Henry  Hudson.     By 

the  Author  of  Uncle  Philip,       ...  38 

Life  and  Adventures  of  Heman  Cortex.  By  do.  38 
Philip  Randolph.    A  Tale  of  Virginia.    By 

Mary  Gertrude, £8 

Rowan's  Histosy  of  the  French  Revolution.  2 

vols 75 

Southey's  Life  of  Oliver  Cromwell,        .       .  38 


Louis'  School-Days.  By  E.  J.  May, .  75 

Louise ;  or.  The  IJeauty  of  Integrity,       .  25 

Maryatt's  Settlers  ir.  Canada,  ...        .  M 

Masterman  Ready (8 

"         Scenes  in  Africa,       •        .        .'       .  68 

Midsummer  Fays.  By  Susan  Pindar,       .        .  fcfc 

MISS  MCINTOSH'S  WORKS. 

Aunt  Kitty's  Tales,  I2mo.  75 
Blind  Alice  ;  A  Tale  for  Good  Children,  . 
Ellel  Leslie  j  or,  The  Reward  of  Self-Control,  38 
Florence  Arnott;   or,  Is  She  Generous!          .  38 
Grace  and  Clara  ;  or,  Be  Just  as  well  as  Gen- 
erous,    88 

Jessie  Graham ;  or,  Friends  Dear,  but  Truth 

Dearer, 39 

Emily  Herbert ;  or,  The  Happy  Home,   .  87 

Rose  and  Lillie  Stanhope,         .       .       .        .  37 

Mamma's  Story  Book 75 

Pebbles  from  the  Sea-Shore,    ....  87 

Puss  in  Boots.  Illustrated.  By  Otto  Specter,  .  25 

PETER  PARLEY'S  WORKS. 

Faggots  for  the  Fireside.  ....  1  18 

Parley's  Present  for  all  Seasons,      .  1  00 

Wanderers  by  Sea  and  I.and,  ...  1  13 

Whiter  Wreath  of  Susrmer  Flowers,      .       .  3  00 

TALES  FOR  THE  PEOPLE  AND  THEIR 
CHILDREN. 


Alice  Franklin.   By  Mary  Howitt,  ... 
Crofton  Boys  (The).    By  Harriet  Martineau,  . 


Dangers  of  Dining  Out.   By  Mra.  Ellis,  .        .  38 

Domestic  Tales.    By  Hannah  More.  2  vols.  .  75 

Early  Friendship.    By  Mrs.  Copley,        .        .  38 

Farmer's  Daughter  (The).    By  Mrs.  Cameron,  38 


First  Impressions.    By  Mrs.  Ellis,    . 

Hope  On.  Hope  Ever  1   By  Mary  Howitt,       .  38 

Little  Com.  Much  Care.    By  do.       ...  38 

Looking-Glass  for  the  Mind.    Many  plates,    .  38 

Love  and  Money.    By  Mary  Howitt,      .        .  38 

Minister's  Family.    By  Mrs.  Ellis,  .        .        .  38 

My  Own  Story.    By  Mary  Howitt,  ...  38 
My 


Uncle,  the  Clockmaker.  By 
No  Sense  Like  Common  Sense.   By  do.          . 
Peasant  and  the  Prince.    By  H.  Martineau,  . 
Poplar  Grove.    By  Mrs.  Copley,     ... 
rs.  Ellis,      . 


Somerville  Hall.   By  M 

Sowing  and  Reaping.   By  Mary  HowitL 

Story  of  a  Genius.     ......  38 

Strive  and  Thrive.   By  do.      ....  38 

The  Two  Apprentices.   By  do.         .        .        .  38 

Tired  of  Housekeeping.    By  T.  S.  Arthur,     .  88 

Twin  Sisters  (The).    By  Mrs.  Sandham,        .  38 

Which  is  the  Wiser!  By  Mary  Howitt,          .  38 

Who  Shall  be  Greatest!  By  do.     .        .  38 

Work  and  Wages.  By  do.      .       .       .       .  38 

SECOND  SERIES. 

Chances  and  Changes.    By  Charles  Burdett,  .  38 

Goldmaker's  Village.  By  H.  Zschokke,         .  38 

Never  Too  Late.    By  Charles  Burdett,  .        .  38 
Ocean  Work,  Ancient  and  Modern.  By  J.  H. 

Wright,      .....       .       .  38 

Picture  Pleasure  Book,  1st  Series,  .  .    1  25 

"  "          "        2d  Series,  .        .        .    1  25 

Robinson  Crusoe.    300  Plates,  .        .        .        .     1  60 

Susan  Pindar's  Story  Book,               .        .        .  76 

Sunshine  of  Greystone,    .....  75 

Travels  of  Bob  the  Squirrel  .....  87 

Wonderful  Storv  Book,    .....  50 

Willy's  First  Present,      .....  75 

Week's  Delight  ;  or,  Games  and  Stories  for  the 

Parlor,        .        ......  75 

William  Tell,  tho  Hero  of  Switzerland,  .        .  50 

Young  Student.    By  Madame  Guizot,     .       .  Tl 


D.  Appleton  &  Company's  List  of  New  Works. 


Miscellaneous  and  General  Litera- 
ture. 

An  Attic  Philosopher  in  Paris,  ...  25 
Appletons'  Library  Manual,  .  .  .  .  1  25 

Agnell's  Book  of  Chess, 1  25 

Arnold's  Miscellaneous  Works,  .  .  .  2  00 
Arthur.  The  Successful  Merchant,  .  .  75 
A  Book  for  Summer  Time  in  the  Country,  .  60 
Bald  win's  Flush  Times  in  Alabama,  .  .125 
Calhoun  (J.  C.),  Works  of.  4  vols.  publ.,  each,  2  00 
Clark's  (W.  G.)  Knick-Knacks,  .  .  1  25 

Cornwall's  Music  as  it  Was,  and  as  it  Is,  .  63 
Essays  from  the  London  Times.  1st  &  2d  Series, 


:ach, 

Ewbanks'  World  in  a  Workshop,    . 
Ellis'  Women  of  England,        . 

"     Hearts  and  Homes, .... 

"     Prevention  Better  than  Cure, 
Foster's  Essays  on  Christian  Morals,        . 
Goldsmith's  Vicar  of  Wakefield,      . 
Grant's  Memoirs  of  an  American  Lady,   . 
Gaieties  and  Gravities.    By  Horace  Smith, 
Guizot's  History  of  Civilization, 
Hearth-Stone.  By  Rev.  S.  Osgood, . 
Hobson.    My  Uncle  and  I, 


Ingoldsby  Legends, 
Isham's  Mi;     - 


1  90 


ud  Cabin,          .... 
Johnson's  Meaning  of  Words,  . 
Kavanagh's  Women  of  Christianity, 
Lexer's  Animal  Magnetism,      .        .        . 
Life's  Discipline.    A  Tale  of  Hungary,    . 
Letters  from  Rome.  A.  D.  138, 

Margaret  Maitland, 75 

Maiden  and  Mamed  Life  of  Mary  Powell,      .  60 
Morton    Montague ;   or   a  Young  Christian's 

Choice,       t 75 

Macaulay's  Miscellanies.  5  vols.       .        .        .  6  00 

Maxims  of  Washington.    By  J.  F.  Schroeder,  1  00 

Mile  Stones  in  our  Life  Journey,       .       .        .  1  00 

MINIATURE  CLASSICAL  LIBRARY. 

Poetic  Lacon  ;  or,  Aphorisms  from  the  Poets,  38 

Bond's  Golden  Maxims, 31 

Clarke's  Scripture  Promises.    Complete,         .  88 

Elizabeth;  or,  The  Exiles  of  Siberia,       .        .  31 

Goldsmith'i  Vicar  of  Wakefield,    ...  38 

«          Essays 38 

Gems  from  American  Poets,    ....  38 

Hannah  More's  Private  Devotions,         .        .  81 

"            "        Practical  Piety.    2  vc?s.        .  76 

Hemans'  Domestic  Affections,  ....  81 

Hoffman's  Lays  of  the  Hudson,  &c.        .        .  88 

Johnson's  History  of  Rasselas,          ...  38 

Manual  of  Matrimony 81 

Moore's  Lalla  Rookh, 38 

"        Melodies.    Complete,         ...  38 

Paul  and  Virginia, 31 

Pollok's  Course  of  Time,          ....  88 

Ptre  Gold  from  the  Rivers  of  Wisdom,        .  88 

Thomson's  Seasons, 38 

Token  of  the  Heart.     Do.  of  Affection.    Do. 
of  Remembrance.      Do.    of   Friendship. 

Do.  of  Love.  Each .31 

Useful  Letter- Writer, 38 

Wilson's  Sacra  Privata, 31 

Young's  Night  Thought*,         ....  38 

Little  Pedlington  and  the  Pedlingtonians,  .  60 
Prismatics.  Tales  and  Poems,  .  .  .  1  25 
Papers  from  the  Quarterly  Review.  .  .  60 
Republic  of  the  United  States.  Its  Duties,  Ac.  1  00 
Preservation  of  Health  and  Prevention  of  Dig- 
ease,  75 

School  for  Politics.    By  Chas.  Gaverre,  .        .  75 

Select  Italian  Comedies.     Translated,     .        .  75 

Shakespeare's  Scholar.    By  R.  G.  White,      .  2  60 

Spectator  (The).    New  ed.  6  vols.  cloth,        .  9  00 

•wett's  Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Chest,       .  3  00 

Stories  from  Blackwood, 50 


THACKERAY'S  WORKS. 

The  Book  of  Snobs, 

Mr.  Browne's  Letters,       .... 
The  Confessions  of  Fitzboodle, 
The  Fat  Contributor,        .... 
Jeames'  Diary.  A  Legend  of  the  Rhine 
The  Luck  of  Barry  Lyndon,     . 

Men's  Wives, 

The  Paris  Sketch  Book.    2  vols.      . 
The  Shabby  Genteel  Story,      . 
The  Yellowplush  Papers.    1  vol.  16iro.  . 
Thackeray's  Works.  6  vols.  bound  in  cloth, 

Trescott's  Diplomacy  of  the  Revolution, 
Tuckennan's  Artist  Life,  . 
Up  Country  Letters,  .... 
Ward's  Letters  >om  Three  Continents,  . 
"  English  Items,  .... 
Warner's  Rudimental  Lessons  in  Music, 
Woman's  Worth 


Philosophical  Works. 

Cousin's  Course  of  Modem  Philosophy,  . 

"        Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,      . 

"  on  the  True,  Beautiful,  and  Good, 
Comte's  Positive  Philosophy.  2  vols.  . 
Hamilton's  Philosophy.  1  vol.  8vo.  . 

Poetry  and  the  Drama. 

Amelia's  Poems.   1  vol.  12mo.        .       . 

Brownell's  Poems.    12mo. 

Bryant's  Poems.    1  vol.  8vo.  Illustrated, 


"  "          2  vols.  12mo.  cloth,      . 

"  "         1  vol.  18mo. 

Byron's  Poetical  Works.    1  vol.  cloth,    . 

"          Antique  mor.          . 
Burns'  Poetical  Works.  Cloth,         .        .        . 

Butler's  Hudibras.  Cloth 

Campbell's  Poetical  Works.   Cloth, 
Coleridge's  Poetical  Works.    Cloth, 
Cowper's  Poetical  Works,        . 
Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales,  .        . 

Dante's  Poems.    Cloth, 

Dryden's  Poetical  Works.    Cloth,  . 
Fay  (J.  S.),  Ulric ;  or,  The  Voices, 
Goethe's  Iphigenia  in  Tauris.     Translated,    . 
Giffillan's  Edition  of  the  British  Poets.  12  voh 
published.    Price  per  vol.  cloth,       . 

Do.    do.    Calf,  per  vol 

Griffith's  (Mattie)  Poems,  . 
Hemans' Poetical  Works.  2  vols.  16mo. 
Herbert's  Poetical  Works.  16mo.  cloth, 
Keats'  Poetical  Works.  Cloth,  12mo.  . 
Kirke  White's  Poetical  Works.  Cloth,  . 
Lord's  Poems.  1  vol.  12mo 

"     Christ  in  Hades.    12mo. 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost.  18mo. 

"        Complete  Poetical  Works, 
Moore'a  Poetical  Works.    8vo.  Illustrated,     . 

"  "  "         Mor.  extra,    .        . 

Montgomery's  Sacred  Poems.    1  vol.  12mo.    . 
Pope's  Poetical  Works.    1  vol.  16mo.      . 
Southey's  Poetical  Works.    1  vol.  . 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene.   1  vol.  cloth,    . 
Scott's  Poetical  Works.    1  vol.        .        .  .     . 

"      Lady  of  the  Lake.    16mo.    . 

"      Marmion, 

"      Lay  of  the  Lust  Minstrel,     . 
Shakspeare's  Dramatic  Works,        .        . 
Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered.    1  vol.  16mo.    . 
Wordsworth  (W.).    The  Prelude,  . 


Eeligious  Works. 


Arnold's  Rugby  School  Sermons,     . 
Anthon's  Catechism  on  the  Homilies,      . 

"        Early  Catechism  for  Children, 
Burnet's  History  of  the  Reformation.  3  vols. 

"      Thirty-Nine  Articles, 


50 
60 
60 
60 
50 

1  00 
50 

1  00 
60 
60 


75 

75 

75 

1  00 

1  00 

50 


800 
62 
1  50 
4 

1  50 


1  25 
75 

3  50 
6  00 

2  00 
63 

3  00 
6  00 
1  00 
1  00 
1  00 
1  25 
1  00 
1 

1  00 

1  00 

73 

T5 

1  00 

2  50 
15 

2  (0 
1  10 
1  25 
1  00 

75 

75 

38 

1  00 

8  00 
6  00 

75 
1  00 

3  00 
1  00 
1  00 

38 
37 
25 

9  00 
1  00 
1  00 


60 

06 

(X 

2  50 

2  Kr 


D.  Applet ou  &  Company's  List  of  New  Works. 


Bradlev's  Family  and  Parish  Sermons,    .        .  2  00 

Cotter's  Mtti  *ad  Rubrics,       ....  38 

Coil's  Puritanism, 1  00 

Evans'  Rectory  of  Valehead,    ....  50 

Grayson's  True  Theory  of  Christianity,  .        .  1  00 

•  i  Preaching 1  25 

Griffin's  Gospel  it*  Own  Advocate,  .       .       .100 

Heeler's  H,.,,k,.f  th,-  S.ml,        .         . 

<    .m^l.-te  Work*.  2  voU.          .        .  4  00 

.lanu's'  Happiness, 25 

James  on  the  Nature  of  Evil,   .        .        .        .  1  00 

Jarvis'  Reply  to  Milner, 75 


ty's  Sacred  Choir, 
Keble's  Christian  Year   ' 
Luyman's  Letters  to  a  Bishop, 
Logan's  Sermons  and  Expository  Lectures, 


Lvra  Apostolica, 

Marshall's  Notes  on  Episcopacy, 

Newman's  Sermons  and  Subjects  of  the  Day, 


rshall's  Notes  on  Epii 

Christian  Doctrine,  . 


Ogilby  on  Lay  Baptism, 
Pearson  on  the  Creed 


Pulpit  Cyclopaedia  and  Ministers'  Companion, 
Sewsll's  Reading  Preparatory  to  Confirmation, 
Southard's  Mystery  ol  Godliness,     • 
Sketches  and  Skeletons  of  Sermons, 
Spencer's  Christian  Instructed, 
Sherlock's  Practical  Christian, 
Sutton's  Disce  Vivere— Learn  to  Li 
Swartz's  Letters  to  my  Godchild, 
Trench's  Notes  on  the"  Parables, 

"       Notes  on  the  Miracles. 
Taylor's  Holy  Living  and  Dying, 

"  Episcopacy  Asserted  and  Maintained, 
Tyng's  Family  Commentary,  .... 
Walker's  Sermons  on  Practical  Subjects, 

Watson  on  Confirmation, 

Wilberforce's  Manual  for  Communicants, 
Wilson's  Lectures  on  Colossians,       .        .        . 
Wyatt's  Christian  Altar, 


75 
37 
25 

1  13 
50 

1  00 

1  00 
75 
50 

2  00 
2  50 

75 

75 

2  50 

1  00 

75 

75 

38 

1  75 

1  75 

1  00 
75 

2  00 
2  00 

06 
38 
75 


Voyages  and  [Travels. 

Africa  and  the  American  Flag,        .        .        .  1  25 

Appletons'  Southern  and  Western  Guide,        .  1  00 

"          Northern  and  Eastern  Guide,         .  1  25 

"          Complete  U.  S.  Guide  Book,  .        .  2  00 

«          N.  Y.  City  Map,      ....  25 

Bartlett's  New  Mexico,  &c.  2  vols.  Illustrated,  5  00 

Bumet's  N.  Western  Territory.        .        .        .  2  00 

Bryant's  What  I  Saw  in  California,        .        .  1  25 

Coggeshall's  Voyages.  2  vols.          .        .        .  2  50 

Dix's  Winter  in  Madeira,         .        .        .        .  1  00 

Hue's  Travels  in  Tartary  and  Thibet.  2  vols.  1  00 

Layard's  Nineveh.    1  vol.  8vo.        .        .        .  1  25 

Notes  of  a  Theological  Student.    12mo.  .        .  1  00 

Oliphant's  Journey  to  Katmumlu,     ...  50 

Parkyns'  Abyssinia.    2  vols  .....  2  50 

Russia  as  it  Is.    By  Gurowski,        .        .        .  1  00 

"      By  Count  de  Custine  .....  1  25 

Sqnier's  Nicaragua.  2  vols  .....  5  00 

Tappan's  Step  from  the  New  World  to  the  Old,  1  7S 

Wanderings  and  Fortunes  of  Germ.  Emigrants,  75 

Williams'  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  2  vols.  8vo.  3  50 

Works  of  Fiction. 


GRACE  AGUILAR'S  WORKS. 

The  Dav»  of  Bruce.    2  vols.  12mo.   .  1  50 

Home  S'cenes  and  Heart  Studies.  12mo. 
The  Mother's  Recompense.    12mo. 
Woman's  Friendship.    12mo. 


Women  of  Israel.  2  vols.  12mo.      . 

Buil.    A  Story  of  Modern  Life.    12mo.  . 
Brace's  Fawn  of  the  Pale  Faces.  12mo. 

Busy  Moments  of  an  Idle  Woman,  .  . 
Chestnut  Wood.  A  Tale.  2  vols.      . 

Don  Qufacotte,  Translated.  Illustrated,  . 

Drury  (A.  H  ).    Light  and  Shade,  .  . 

Dupuy(A.  E.).    The  Conspirator,    .  . 

Elten  Parry  ;  or,  Trials  of  the  Heart,  . 


75 

75 

75 

1  75 

1  25 

75 

75 

63 


MRS.    ELLIS'  WORKS. 

Hearts  and  Homes ;  or,  Social  Distinctions,      .  1  14 

Prevention  Better  than  Cure,  ...  75 

Women  of  England SO 

Emmanuel  Phillibert.    By  Dumas,  .        .        .  1  25 

Farmingdale.    By  Caroline  Thomas,        .        .  1  00 

Fullerton  (Lady  G.).    Ellen  Middleton,         .  75 

"  "  Grantley  Manor.  1  vol. 

12mo.        .        .        .  78 

«                «'             Lady  Bird.  1  vol.  Umo.  75 

The  Foresters.    By  Alex.  Dumas,    ...  75 

Gore  (Mrs.).  The  Dean's  Daughter.  1  vol.  15mo.  75 

Goldsmith's  Vicar  of  Wakefield.    12mo.          .  75 

Gil  Bias.  With  500  Engravings.  Cloth,  gt.edg.  250 

Harry  Muir.    A  Tale  of  Scottish  Life,    .        .  75 
Hearts  Unveiled  ;  or,  I  Knew  You  Would  Like 

Him 75 

Heartsease  ;  or,  My  Brother's  Wife.    2  rols.  1  50 

Heir  of  Redelyfle.  2  vols.  cloth,      .        .        .  1  50 

Heloise  ;  or,  The  UnreveaW  Secret.  12mo.   .  75 

Hobson.   My  Uncle  and  I.    12mo.    ...  75 

Holmes'  Tempest  and  Sunthioe.    12mo.  .        .  1  00 

Home  is  Home.    A  Domestic  Story,         .        .  75 

Howitt  (Mary).    The  Heir  of  West  Wayland,  50 

lo.   A  Tale  of  the  Ancient  Fane.    12mo.         .  75 

The  Iron  Cousin.    By  Mary  Cowden  Clarke.  .  1  25 
James  (G.  P.  R.).   Adrian  ;  or,  Clouds  of  the 

Mind,          .        .        ...        .        .  75 

John ;  or,  Is  a  Cousin  in  the  Hand  Worth  Two 

in  the  Bush, 25 

JTJLIA  KAVANAGH'SI  WORKS. 

Nathalie.  A  Tale.    12mo. 

Madeline.    12mo 

Daisy  Burns.    12mo. 


1  00 

75 

1  00 


Life's  Discipline.    A  Tale  of  Hungary,    . 
Lone  Dove  (The).  A  Legend,  .... 
Linuy  Lockwood.    By  Catherine  Crowe, 

MISS  MCINTOSH'S  WORKS. 

Two  Lives;  or,  To  Seem  and  To  Be.    12mo. 

Aunt  Kitty's  Tales.    12mo 

Charms  and  Counter-Charms.  12mo.  .  . 
Evenings  at  Donaldson  Manor,  .  .  . 
The  Lofty  and  the  Lowly.  2  vols.  . 

Margaret's  Home.    By  Cousin  Alice,      .       . 
Mane  Louise  ;  or,  The  Opposite  Neighbors,    . 
Maiden  Aunt  (The).    A  Story, 
Manzoni.   The  Betrothed  Lovers.  2  vols. 


Margaret  Cecil ;  or,  I  Can  Because  I  Ought,     . 


50 
75 
1  50 
75 
Morton  Montague  ;'or,  The  Christian'sChoice,        75 

Norman  Leslie.   By  G.  C.  H 75 

Priamatics.  Tales  and  Poems.  By  Haywarde,  1  25 
[ontjoy.  12mo.  .  .  75 
To  Love  and  to  Be  Loved.  12mo.  75 
Time  and  Tide.  12mo.  .  .  75 
Reuben  Medlicott ;  or,  The  Coming  Man,  .  75 
Rose  Douglass.  By  S.  R.  W 75 


MISS  SEWELL  S  WORKS. 


75 


751 


Amy  Herbert.   A  Tale.    12mo. 

Experience  of  Life.  12mo.        .        .        i 

Gertrude.   A  Tale.  12mo. 

Katberine  Ashton.    2  vols.  12mo.     .        .        .  1  50 

Laneton  Parsonage.    A  Tale.   3  vols.  12m o.    .2251 

Margaret  Percival.    2  vols 1  50  , 

Walter  Lorimer,  and  Other  Tales.    12mo.       .  75  I 

A  Journal  Kept  for  Children  of  a  Village  SchoeL,  1  00 

Sunbeams  and  Shadows.   Cloth,      ...  75 

Thorpe's  Hive  of  the  Bee  Hunter,    .        .        .  1  00 

Thackeray's  Works.   6  vols.  12mo.         .        .  6  00 

The  Virginia  Comedians.    2  vols.  12mo.         .  1  M 

Use  of  Sunshine.    By  S.  M.  12mo.  .        .        .  16 

Wight's  Romance  of  Abelard  &  Heloise.  12»o.  t5 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO:  8  PUBLICATIONS. 


The  most  Authentic  and  Entertaining  Life  of  Napoleon. 


Memoirs  of  Napoleon, 

HIS  COURT  AND  FAMILY. 

BY  THE  DUCHESS  D'ABRANTES,  (MADAME  JUNOT.) 
Two  Volumes,  8vo.    1134  pages.    Price  $4. 

.CQittamtbr  tit  His  Illustrate 

JEROME  BONAPARTE, 
LOUIS  BONAPARTE, 
CARDINAL  FESCH, 
LOUISA,  QUEEN  OF  PRUSSLt, 
JOSEPH  BONAPARTE. 


NAPOLEON. 
JOSEPHINE. 
MARIA  LOUISA, 
DUKE  OF  REICH8TADT, 


LTTCIEN  BONAPARTE, 
MARSHAL  JUNOT, 
CHARLES  BONAPARTE, 
PAULINE  BONAPARTE, 


MADAME  LAETITIA  BONAPARTE,  ELIZA  BONAPARTE, 
CHARLES  BONAPARTE, 


Probably  no  writer  has  had  the  same  op- 
portunities for  becoming  acquainted  with 

NAPOLEON  THE  GEEAT 
as  the  Duchess  D'Abrantes.  Her  mother 
rocked  him  in  his  cradle,  and  when  he 
quitted  Brienne  and  came  to  Paris,  she  guid- 
ed and  protected  his  younger  days.  Scarcely 
a  day  passed  without  his  visiting  her  house 
during  the  period  which  preceded  his  depar- 
ture for  Italy  as 

COMMANDEE-IN-CHIEF. 
Abundant  occasion  was   therefore   had  for 
watching  the  development  of  the  great  genius 
who  afterwards  became  tho  master  of  the 
greater  part  of  Europe. 

MAESHAL  JUNOT, 

who  became  allied  to  the  author  of  this  work 
by  marriage,  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Na- 
poleon, and  figured  in  most  of  the 

BEILLIANT  ENGAGEMENTS 
which  rendered  him  the  greatest  military 
captain  of  the  age.  No  interruption  took 
place  in  the  intimacy  which  she  enjoyed,  so 
that  in  all  these  scenes,  embracing  a  period 
of  nearly 

THIETY  TEAES, 

the  Duchess  became  familiar  with  all  the 
secret  springs  of 

NAPOLEON'S  ACTIONS, 


either  through  her  husband  or  by  her  own 
personal  knowledge  and  observation  at  th« 
Court  of  Napoleon. 

JOSEPHINE, 

whose  life  and  character  so  peculiarly  attract 
the  attention  of  all  readers,  occupies  a  great 
part  of  the  first  volume.  The  character  and 
the  deeds  of 

THE  EMPEEOES  AND  KINGS, 

THE  GEEAT  MEN  OF  THE  DAT, 

THE  MAESHALS  OF  THE  EMPIEE, 

THE  DISTINGUISHED  LADIES  OF 

THE  COUET, 

are  described  with  minuteness,  which  pei 
sonal  observation  only  admits  of.  The  work 
is  written  in  that 

FAMILIAE  GOSSIPING  STYLE, 
and  so  interspersed  with  anecdotes  that  the 
reader  never  wearies.    She  has  put  every 
thing  in  her  book— great  events  and  small. 

BATTLES  AND  BALLS, 
COUET  INTEIGUES  AND  BOUDOIR 

GOSSIP, 
TEEATIES  AND  FLIETATION8, 

making  two  of  the  most  charming  volume* 
of  memoirs,  which  will  juterest  th«  reader 
in  spite  of  himself. 


Opinions  of  the  Press. 

"  These  anecdotes  of  Napoleon  are  the  best  yet  given  to  tho  world,  because  the  most 
Intimate  and  familiar." — London  Literary  Gazette. 

u  We  consider  the  performance  now  before  us  as  more  authentic  and  amusing  than  any 
ether  of  its  kind."— London  Quarterly  Review. 

**  Every  thing  relating  to  Napoleon  is  eagerly  sought  for  and  read  in  this  country  as  well 
•8  In  Europe,  and  this  work,  with  its  extraordinary  attractions,  will  not  fail  to  command 
a  wide  circulation.  Madame  Junot  possessed  qualifications  for  writing  a  semi-domestie 
history  of  the  great  Corsican  which  no  other  person,  male  or  female,  could  command,"— 
llustrated, 


D.  APPLETON  &  GO:S  PUBLICATIONS. 
A  Work  abounding  in  Exciting  Scenes  and  Remarkable  Incidents. 


Capt.    Canot ; 


OR, 

TWENTY  YEARS  OF  AN  AFRICAN  SLAYER : 

BEING   AN   ACCOUNT   OF  HIS   OAEEEB  AND  ADVENTURES  ON  THE  COAST,  IU 
THE   INTERIOR,    ON   SHIPBOARD,    AND   IN   THE   WEST   INDIES. 

Written  out  and  Edited  from  the  Captain's  Journals,  Memoranda,  and  Conversation*, 

BY    BRANTZ   MAYER. 
One  Volume,  l2mo.    "With  eight  Illustrations.    Price  $1  25. 

Criticisms  of  the  Press. 

"The  author  is  a  literary  gentleman  of  Baltimore,  no  Abolitionist,  and  we  believe  tLi 
work,  to  be  a  truthful  account  of  the  life  of  a  man  who  saw  much  more  than  falls  to  the  lot 
of  most  men." — Commonwealth,. 

"  A  remarkable  volume  is  this ;  because  of  its  undoubted  truth :  it  having  been  derived 
by  Mayer  from  personal  conversations  with  Canot,  and  from  journals  which  the  slaver  fur- 
nished of  his  own  life." —  Worcester  Palladium. 

"  Capt  Canot,  the  hero  of  the  narrative,  is,  to  our  own  knowledge,  a  veritable  person- 
age, and  resides  in  Baltimore.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  main  incidents  connected  with 
his  extraordinary  career  are  in  every  respect  true. ' — Arthur's  Home  Gazette. 

"  Under  one  aspect,  as  the  biography  of  a  remarkable  man  who  passed  through  a  sin- 
gularly strange  and  eventful  experience,  it  is  as  interesting  as  any  sea  story  that  we  have 
ever  read." — Boston  Evening  Traveller. 

"  Capt.  Canot  has  certainly  passed  through  a  life  of  difficulty,  danger,  and  wild,  daring 
adventure,  which  has  much  the  air  of  romance,  and  still  he,  or  rather  his  editor,  tells  the 
tale  with  so  much  straightforwardness,  that  we  cannot  doubt  its  truthfulness."— New  York 
Sunday  Despatch. 

"The  work  could  not  have  been  better  done  if  the  principal  actor  had  combined 
the  descriptive  talent  of  De  Foe  with  the  astuteness  of  Fouche  and  the  dexterity  of  GL 
Bias,  which  traits  are  ascribed  to  the  worthy  whose  acquaintance  we  shall  soon  make  by 
his  admiring  editor.11—  N.  Y.  Tribune. 

"  The  general  style  of  the  work  is  attractive,  and  the  narrative  spirited  and  bold — well 
suited  to  the  daring  and  hazardous  course  of  life  led  by  the  adventurer.  This  book  is  illus- 
trated by  several  excellent  engravings.'' — Baltimore  American. 

'•The  biography  of  an  African  slaver  as  taken  from  his  own  lips,  and  giving  his  adven- 
tures in  this  traffic  for  twenty  years.  With  great  natural  keenness  of  perception  and  com* 
plete  communicativeness,  he  has  literally  unmasked  his  real  life,  and  tells  both  what  h« 
was  and  wJiat  he  saw,  the  latter  being  the  Photograph  of  the  Negro  in  Africa,  which  haa 
been  so  long  wanted.  A  nephew  of  Mr.  Mayer  has  illustrated  the  volume  with  eight  ad- 
mirable drawings.  We  should  think  no  book  of  the  present  day  would  be  received  with 
so  keen  an  interest"— Home  Journal. 

"  Capt.  Canot  has  passed  most  of  his  life  since  1S19  on  the  ocean,  and  his  catalogue  of 
adventures  at  sea  and  on  land,  rival  in  grotesqueness  and  apparent  improbability  the  mar- 
vels of  Robinson  Crusoe." — Evening  Post. 

"If  stirring  incidents,  hair-breadth  escapes,  and  variety  of  adventure,  can  maka  a  book 
Interesting,  this  must  possess  abundant  attractions."— Newark  Daily  Advertiser. 

"  This  is  a  true  record  of  the  life  of  one  who  had  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  days  la 
dealing  in  human  flesh.  We  commend  this  book  to  all  lovers  of  adventure." — Boston 
Christian  Recorder. 

4i  We  would  advise  every  one  who  is  a  lover  of  '  books  that  are  books1 — every  one  who 
admires  Le  Sage  and  De  Foe,  and  has  lingered  long  over  the  charming  pages  of  Gil  Blai 
and  Robinson  Cruaoe — every  one,  pro-slavery  or  anti-slavery,  to  purchase  this  book." — 
Buffalo  Courier 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO:S  PUBLICATION'S. 
Rev.  Samuel  Osgood's  Two  Popular  Books. 


I. 

Mile  Stones  in  our  Life  Journey 

SECOND  EDITION. 
One  Volume,  12mo.    Cloth.    Price  $1, 


Opinions  of  the  Press. 

u  In  so  small  a  compsss,  we  rarely  meet  with  more  Catholic  sympathies,  and  with  I 
clearer  or  more  practical  view  of  the  privileges  enjoyed  by,  and  the  duties  enjoined,  upon 
as  all,  at  any  stage  of  our  mortal  pilgrimage.  ' — Church  Journal. 

"Some  passages  remind  us  forcibly  of  Addison  and  Goldsmith."— Independent. 

"  This  little  volume  is  one  of  those  books  which  are  read  by  all  classes  at  all  stages  ol 
life,  with  an  interest  which  loses  nothing  by  change  or  circumstances." — Pennsyl/oanian. 

"  He  writes  kindly ;  strongly  and  readably;  nor  is  their  any  thing  in  this  volume  of  I 
narrow,  bigoted,  or  sectarian  character." — Life  Illustrated. 

"  His  counsels  are  faithful  and  wholesome,  his  reflection  touching,  and  the  whole  is 
clothed  in  a  style  graceful  and  free."— Hartford  Relig.  Herald. 

"  This  is  a  volume  of  beautiful  and  cogent  essays,  virtuous  in  motive,  simple  in  expres- 
sion, pertinent  and  admirable  in  logic,  and  glorious  in  conclusion  and  climax." — Buffalo 
Express. 

"  It  is  written  with  exquisite  taste,  is  full  of  beautiful  thought  most  felicitously  ox- 
pressed,  and  is  pervaded  by  a  genial  and  benevolent  spirit." — Dr.  Sprague. 

"  Almost  every  page  has  a  tincture  of  elegant  scholarship,  and  bears  witness  to  an  * 
tensive  reading  of  good  authors."— Bryant. 


II. 

The  Hearth-Stone ; 

THOUGHTS  UPON  HOME  LIFE  IN  OUR  CITIES. 
BY  SAMUEL  OSGOOD, 

AUTHOR  OF  "  STUDIES  IN  CHBISTUU  BIOGBAPHY,11  "  GOD  WITH  MEN,"  KTU 

FOUETH  EDITION. 
One  Volume,  12mo.    Cloth.    Price  f  1. 


Criticisms  of  the  Press. 

"This  is  a  volume  of  elegant  and  impressive  essays  on  the  domestic  relations  and  reli- 
gious duties  of  the  household.  Mr.  Osgood  writes  on  these  interesting  themes  in  the  most 
charming  and  animated  style,  winning  the  reader's  judgment  rather  than  coercing  it  to  the 
author's  conclusions.  The  predominant  sentiments  in  the  book  are  purity,  sincerity,  and 
love.  A  more  delightful  volume  has  rarely  been  published,  and  we  trust  it  will  have  t 
wide  circulation,  for  its  influence  must  be  salutary  upon  both  old  and  young.1' — Commer' 
rial  Advertiser. 

"  The '  Hearth-Stone1  is  the  symbol  of  all  those  delightful  truths  which  Mr.  Osgood  here 
connects  with  it.  In  a  free  and  graceful  style,  varying  from  deep  solemnitj  to  the  most 
genial  and  lively  tone,  as  bents  his  range  of  subjects,  he  gives  attention  to  wise  thoughts 
on  holy  things,  and  homely  truths.  His  volume  will  find  mar  y  warm  hearts  io  which  It 
will  address  itself."—  Christian  Examiner. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'fl  PUBLICATIONS. 
A  Ore  at  National  Work. 


Party  Leaders. 


SKETCHES  OF 

JEFFERSON,  HAMILTON,  RANDOLPH,  JACKSON,  AND  CLAY: 
Including  Noticet  of  many  other  Distinguished  American  Statesmen 

BY  J.  G.  BALDWIN, 

(Now  of  San  Francisco,  California.)    Author  of  «  Flush  Times  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi. 
One  Volume,  12mo.    Cloth.    Price  $1 


OPINIONS     OP    EMINENT     MEN. 

From  Ex-President  FILLMOEE. 

I  have  read  "  Party  Leaders"  with  great  satisfaction  and  delight,  and  return  you  a  thon, 
Band  thanks  for  the  pleasure  and  instruction  I  have  derived  from  the  perusal. 
From  Honorable  EDWAED  EVERETT. 

What  little  I  have  as  yet  been  able  to  read  of  it,  has  impressed  me  very  favorably  in  re- 
ference to  the  ability  and  impartiality  with  which  it  Is  drawn  up.  I  am  prepared  to  read 
it  with  interest  and  advantage,  in  consequence  of  the  pleasure  I  derived  from  "  The  Flush 
Times  in  Alabama." 

From  Honorable  3.  P.  KENNEDY. 

I  was  greatly  delighted  with  the  fine,  discriminating,  acute  insight  with  which  the  cha- 
racters presented  in  the  work  are  drawn,  and  with  the  eloquent  style  of  the  sketches.  I 
but  repeat  the  common  opinion  of  the  best  judges,  which  I  hear  every  where  expressed, 
when  I  commend  these  qualities  of  the  book. 

"  The  Flush  Times  of  Alabama "  had  whetted  my  desire  to  see  this  second  production 
of  Mr.  Baldwin's  pen,  aud  I  can  hardly  express  to  you  the  agreeable  surprise  I  enjoyed  in 
finding  a  work  of  such  surpassing  merit  in  a  tone  and  manner  so  entirely  different  from  the 
first — demonstrating  that  double  gift  in  the  author  which  enables  him  to  excel  in  two  such 
opposite  departments  of  literature. 

From  Hon.  K.  M.  T.  HUNTEE,  77.  &  Senator  from  Virginia. 

I  have  read  "  Party  Leaders"  with  great  pleasure.    It  is  written  with  ability,  and  witti 
freshness,  and  grace  of  style,        *       *       *       The  chapters  on  Eandolph  are  capital. 
From  Hon.  JAMES  M.  MASON,  V.  £  Senator fvom  Virginia. 

I  have  heard  "  Party  Leaders "  highly  commended  by  those  competent  to  judge,  but 
confess  I  was  not  prepared  for  the  intellectual  and  literary  feast  its  rich  pages  have  yielded. 

As  a  literary  work,  I  shall  be  much  disappointed  if  it  does  not  place  its  author  at  once 
In  the  first  rank  of  American  literature,  and  even  in  old  England.    I  shall  look  for  its  place 
nctt  to,  if  not  by  the  side  of,  the  kindred  works  of  Mslntosh  and  Macaulay. 
From  a  Distinguished  Statesman. 

It  is  a  noble  production,  full  of  profound  thought,  discriminating  judgment,  just  criti 
cism,  and  elevated  sentiments,  all  expressed  in  the  most  captivating  and  eloquent  style.  It 
te  a  book  just  according  to  my  fancy,  and,  I  think,  one  of  the  most  captivating  in  oui 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO.'S  PUBLICATIONS. 
A  Practical  Book  on  the  Breeding  of  Fisli 


A  COMPLETE  TREATISE  ON 

Artificial  Fifh-Breeding  : 

INCLUDING  THE  EEPOETS  ON  THE  SUBJECT  MADE  TO  THE  FKENCH 

ACADEMY  AND  THE  FEENCH  GOVEENMENT,  AND  PAETICU- 

LAES  OF  THE  DISOOVEET  AS  PUESUED  IN  ENGLAND. 

TRANSLATED  AND  EDITED  BY 

WM.  H.  FRY. 
ILLUSTRATED    WITH   ENGRAVINGS. 

One  Volume.    12mo.    Cloth.    Price  75  cents. 


Opinions  of  the  Press. 

"  A  very  genial  and  entertaining,  though  practical  and  scientific  book.  No  one  who 
loves  the  existence  in  our  rivers,  brooks,  or  lakes,  of  trout  and  salmon,  should  be  without 
It"— Broome  Republic. 

"  In  this  little  volume,  the  whole  process  of  fish-culture  is  described  so  plainly  and  with 
BO  much  minuteness  that  any  person  will  have  no  difficulty  in  informing  himself  sufficiently 
well  to  engage  in  the  business ;  provided  he  has  the  necessary  facilities  and  leisure,  with  a 
good  running  stream  or  pond,  and  the  proper  attention,  a  great  brood  of  fishes  may  be 
natched  from  the  eggs,  and  raised  up  for  the  market  or  the  table ;  and  such  delicacies  are 
trout  and  salmon,  that  it  is  evident  that  the  business  of  producing  them  for  sale  may  be 
made  profitable."—  Worcester  Palladium. 

"  This  discovery  is  treated  as  a  matter  of  great  public  benefit  hi  France  and  England, 
where  it  is  practised  under  the  direction  and  patronage  of  Government,  and  is  beginning  to 
work  its  results  in  stocking  rivers  and  lakes,  with  the  finest  species  of  fish,  where  few  or 
•one  have  before  existed  for  many  years."—  Ohio  Cultivator. 

"  Every  farmer  who  has  a  stream  flowing  through  his  land,  or  miller  who  wishes  to  turn 
Ws  ponds  to  some  account,  should  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  details  of  ti»«  book." 
-Newark  Daily  AdvertiMr. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


'67 -9  A 


LD  21A-6Cbrc-2,'67 
(H241slO)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


